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Lars Erik Holmquist is Professor in Media Technology at Södertörn University, manager of the Interaction Design and Innovation lab at the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and a Research Leader at the Mobile Life VINN Excellence Centre in Kista, Sweden. H...
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7. Bifocal Display
The Bifocal Display is an information presentation technique which allows a large data space to be viewed as a whole, while simultaneously a portion is seen in full detail. The detail is seen in the context of the overview, with continuity across the boundaries, rather than existing in a disjoint window (see Figure 7.1).
William Farrand's (Farrand 1973) observation that "an effective transformation [of data] must somehow maintain global awareness while providing detail" reflected a longstanding concern, both with a user's need to be aware of context and with the "too much data, too small a screen" problem. Although static solutions already existed in the field of geography, an interactively controlled transformation that satisfied Farrand's requirement and, moreover, maintained a continuity of information space, was invented in 1980 by Robert Spence (Imperial College London) and Mark Apperley (University of Waikato, New Zealand), who gave it the name 'Bifocal Display'. Since then it has been implemented, generalized, evaluated and widely applied. Today there are many applications of the Bifocal Display concept in use; for example the very familiar stretchable dock of application icons associated with the Mac OSX (Modine 2008) operating system (Figure 7.2).
The Bifocal Display Explained
The concept of the Bifocal display can be illustrated by the physical analogy shown in Figures 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5. In Figure 7.3 we see a sheet representing an information space containing many items: documents, sketches, emails and manuscripts are some examples. As presented in Figure 7.3 the information space may be too large to be viewed in its entirety through a window, and scrolling would be needed to examine all information items. However, if the sheet representing the information space is wrapped around two uprights, as in Figure 7.4, and its extremities angled appropriately, a user will see Figure 7.5 part of the information space in its original detail and, in addition, a 'squashed' view of the remainder of the information space. The squashed view may not allow detail to be discerned but, with appropriate encoding (e.g., colour, vertical position) both the presence and the nature of items outside the focus region can be interpreted. If an item is noticed in the context region and considered to be potentially of interest, the whole information space can be scrolled by hand to bring that item into detail in the focus region.
Figures 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5 emphasises that the 'stretching' or 'distorting' of information space is central to the concept of the Bifocal Display. The continuity of information space between focus and context regions is a vital feature and especially valuable in the context of map representation (see below).
Immediately following its invention in 1980, the Bifocal Display concept was illustrated in a press release based on an (the first!) envisionment video (Apperley & Spence 1981) showing it in use in the scenario of a futuristic office. It was presented to experts in office automation in 1981 (Apperley and Spence 1981a; Apperley and Spence 1981b;) and the technical details (Apperley et al. 1982) of a potential implementation were discussed in 1982, the same year that a formal journal paper (Spence & Apperley 1982) describing the Bifocal display was published.
A number of significant features of the Bifocal display can be identified:
Continuity
Continuity between the focus and context regions in a bifocal representation is an important and powerful feature, facilitated by the notion of 'stretching' or 'distorting' the information space. Formally, the transformation of the space must be monotonic (effectively, moving in the same direction) in both dimensions for continuity to be visible. In fact, the concept of stretching can be generalised. If the stretching shown in Figures 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7 can be termed X-distortion, then stretching in both directions (XY-distortion) can be advantageous in, for example, the display of calendars (Figure 7.6) and metro maps (Figure 7.1): in both these applications the continuity of information space is a distinct advantage. The term 'rubber-sheet stretching' (Tobler 1973; Mackinlay et al. 1991; Sarkar et al. 1993) was seen to neatly explain both the graphical/topological distortion and continuity aspects of focus-plus-context presentations. It is possible that the latter freedom led to use of the term 'fish-eye display' as synonymous with 'bifocal display'. Note that the taxonomy developed by Ying Leung and Apperley (Leung and Apperley 1993a; Leung and Apperley 1993b) discusses the relationships and differences between the bifocal and fish-eye concepts.
Detail Suppression
A second significant feature of the bifocal display is the ability to customise the representation of an item for its appearance in the context region, where fine detail is irrelevant or even inappropriate (see, for example, the London Underground map of Figure 7.1, where no attempt is made to provide station detail in the context region). The concept of 'degree of interest', later to be formalised by George Furnas (Furnas 1986) might, for example lead to the suppression of text and the possible introduction of alternative visual cues, such as shape and colour, with a view to rendering the item more easily distinguished when in the context region. Whereas the bifocal concept is primarily explained as a presentation technique, it was immediately apparent that the effectiveness of the presentations could be enhanced by corresponding variations in representation, utilising the implicit degree of interest of the focus and context regions.
Interaction: scrolling/panning
Yet a third feature of the bifocal concept concerned manual interaction with the display to achieve scrolling or panning. In the envisionment video (Apperley & Spence 1981) the user is seen scrolling by touch, immediate visual feedback ensuring easy positioning of a desired item in the focus region (see Figure 7.7). Truly direct manipulation, as in touch, is vital for predictable navigation in a distorted space, and overcomes the issues of scale and speed (Guiard & Beaudouin-Lafon 2004) typically associated with combined panning and zooming operations. The impact and potential of multi-touch interfaces in such interaction is mentioned later.
No higher resolution available
Later work by Apperley and Spence and colleagues described generalizations of the Bifocal Display concept and a useful taxonomy (Leung and Apperley 1993a,b,c,d; Leung et al. 1995). In 1991 a three-dimensional realization of the Bifocal Display, termed the Perspective Wall (Figure 7.8), was described (Mackinlay et al. 1991). In the Neighbourhood Explorer (Figure 7.9), Apperley and Spence applied the Bifocal Display concept to the task of home-finding (Spence 2001, page 85; Apperley et al. 2001) in a multi-axis representation. A very effective application of the Bifocal concept to interaction with hierarchically structured data was described by John Lamping and Ramana Rao (Lamping & Rao 1994) who employed a hyperbolic transformation to ensure that, theoretically, an entire tree was mapped to a display (Figure 7.10). In the same year, Rao and Stuart Card (Rao & Card 1994) described the Table Lens (Figure 7.12) which, also, employed the concept of stretching.
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The commercial development by IDELIX of software that would implement the concept of the Bifocal Display allowed that company to demonstrate the concept in a number of applications. In one, a transportation map of the Boston area could be examined on the limited display area of a PDA (Figure 7.11) through the appropriate manual control of panning and variable stretching; automatic degree-of-interest adjustment was employed to make the best use of available display area. By contrast, another application (Figures 7.13 and 7.14) employed a table-top display, with four simultaneous users independently controlling the stretching of different areas of the map in order to inspect detail. The value of the Bifocal Display concept to a user's interaction with a calendar was demonstrated by Ben Bederson, Aaron Clamage, Mary Czerwinski and George Robertson (Bederson et al 2004) - see Figure 7.15.
In a medical application of the bifocal concept a 3D image of a portion of the brain has been distorted to focus on the region around an aneurysm, with the surrounding network of arteries as the context (Cohen et al. 2005) - see Figure 7.16 and Figure 7.17.
The Future
Research is needed into the fundamental cognitive and perceptual reasons why, and in what circumstances, awareness of context is particularly useful, so that the potential of the bifocal, Degree-of-Interest and other focus+context techniques, alone or in concert, can be assessed for a specific application. The advent of multi-touch screens, and their associated (extreme) direct manipulation, has opened enormous opportunities for improved interaction techniques in navigating large spaces. The single gesture combined pan-zoom operation possible with a multi-touch display offers exciting possibilities for further development and utilisation of the bifocal concept (Forlines and Shen 2005).
Where to learn more
A chapter of Bill Buxton's book (Buxton 2007) is devoted to the Bifocal Display. The bifocal concept is also treated in many texts associated with Human-computer Interaction, under a variety of index terms: distortion (Ware 2007), bifocal display (Spence 2007; Mazza 2009), and focus+context Tidwell (Tidwell 2005).
Videos
Appreciation of the Bifocal Display concept can be helped by viewing video presentations. A selection is given below.
7.2 Commentary by Stuart K. Card
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7.3 Commentary by Lars Erik Holmquist
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When revisiting the original videos by Spence and Apperley, it is remarkable how fresh and practical their ideas still are - and this goes for not just the principles of the Bifocal display itself, but also the human-computer interaction environment that they envisioned. A few years ago I organized a conference screening of classic research videos, including Spence and Apperley's envisionment of a future Office of the Professional. For entertainment purposes, the screening was followed by Steven Spielberg's science fiction movie MINORITY REPORT. In the fictional film, we could see how the hero (played by Tom Cruise) interacted with information in a way that seemed far beyond the desktop computers we have today - but in many ways very similar to Spence and Apperley's vision of the future office. So ahead of their time were these researchers that when these works were shown in tandem, it became immediately obvious how many of the ideas in the 1981 film were directly reflected in a flashy Hollywood vision of the future - created over 20 years later!
It is hard for us to imagine now, but there was a time when the desktop computing paradigm, also called Windows-Icons-Mouse-Pointers or WIMP, was just one of many competing ideas for how we would best interact with digital data in the future. Rather than pointing and clicking with a disjointed, once-removed device like the mouse, Spence and Apperley imagined interactions that are more in line with how we interact with real-world objects - pointing directly at them, touching them on the screen, issuing natural verbal commands. Of the many ideas they explored, the general theme was interaction with large amounts information in ways that are more natural than viewing it on a regular computer screen - something they likened to peeking through a small window, revealing only a tiny part of a vast amount of underlying data.
The Bifocal display is based on some very simple but powerful principles. By observing how people handle large amounts of data in the real, physical world, the inventors came up with a solution for mitigating the same problem in the virtual domain. In this particular case, they drew upon an observation of human vision system - how we can keep many things in the periphery of our attention, while having a few in the focus - and implemented this electronically. They also used a simple optical phenomenon, that of perspective; things in the distance are smaller than those that are near. Later, other physical properties have also been applied to achieve a similar effect, for instance the idea of a "rubber sheet" that stretches and adapts to an outside force, or that of a camera lens that creates a "fisheye" view of a scene (e.g. Sarkar and Brown 1994).
All of these techniques can be grouped under the general term of focus+context visualizations. These visualizations have the potential to make large amounts of data comprehensible on computers screens, which are by their nature limited in how much data they can present, due to factors of both size and resolution. However, powerful as they may be, there are also some inherent problems in many of these techniques. The original Bifocal display assumes that the material under view is arranged in a 1-dimensional layout, which can be unsuitable for many important data sets, such as maps and images. Other fisheye and rubber sheet techniques extended the principles to 2-dimensional data, but still require an arrangement based on fixed spatial relationships rather than more logically based ones, such as graphs. This has been addressed in later visualization techniques, which allow the individual elements of a data set (e.g. nodes in a graph) to move more freely in 2-dimensional space while keeping their logical arrangement (e.g. Lamping et al 1995).
Furthermore, for these techniques to work, it is necessary to assume that the material outside the focus is not overly sensitive to distortion shrinking, or that it at least can be legible even when some distortion is applied. This is not always true; for instance, text can become unreadable if subjected to too much distortion and/or shrinking. In these cases, it may be necessary to apply some other method than the purely visual to reduce the size of the material outside the focus. One example of how this can be done is semantic zooming, which can be derived from the Degree of Interest function in Furnas' generalized fisheye views (Frunas 1986). With semantic zooming, rather than graphically shrinking or distorting the material outside the focus, important semantic features are extracted and displayed. A typical application would be to display the headline of a newspaper article rather than a thumbnail view of the whole text. Semantic zooming is now common in maps, where more detail - such as place names and small roads - gradually gets revealed as the user zooms in.
There have been many approaches that try to mitigate these problems. In my own work, using a similar starting point to Spence and Apperley and also inspired by work by Furnas, Card and many others, I imagined a desk covered with important papers. One or two would be in the center of attention as they were being worked on; the rest would be spread around. However, unlike other bifocal displays they would not form a continuous display, but be made up of discrete objects. On a computer screen, the analog would be to have one object in the middle in readable size, and the others shrunk to smaller size arranged on the surrounding area. By arranging the individual pages in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom fashion it became possible to present a longer text, such as a newspaper article or a book (see figure 1). The user could then click on a relevant page to bring it into focus, or use the keyboard to flip through the pages (Figure 2). This technique was called Flip Zooming, as it mimicked flipping the pages in a book. The initial application was a Java application for web browsing, called the Zoom Browser (Holmquist 1997). Later we worked to adapt the same principle to smaller displays, such as handheld computers. Because the screen real-estate on these devices was even smaller, just shrinking the pages outside the focus was not feasible - they would become too small to read. Instead, we applied computational linguistics principles to extract only the most important important keywords of each section, and present these to give the viewer an overview of the material. This was implemented as a web browser for small terminals, and was one of the first examples of how to handle large amounts of data on such devices (Björk et al. 1999).
Another problem with visualizing large amounts of data, is that of size versus resolution. Even a very large display, such as a projector or big-screen plasma screen, will have roughly the same number of pixels as a regular computer terminal. This means that although we can blow up a focus+context display to wall size, the display might not have enough detail to properly show the important information in the focus, such as text. Several projects have attempted to combine displays of different sizes resolutions in order to show both detail and context at the same time. For instance, the Focus Plus Context Screen positioned a high-resolution screen in the centre of a large, projected display (Baudisch et al 2005). This system made it possible to provide low-resolution overview of a large image, e.g. a map, with a region of higher resolution in the middle; the user could then scroll the image to find the area of interest. A similar approach was found in the Ubiquitous Graphics project,where we combined position-aware handheld displays with a large projected display. Rather than scrolling an image around a statically positioned display, users could move the high-resolution display as a window or "magic lens" to show detail on an arbitrary part of the large screen (see Figure 3). These and several other projects point to a device ecology where multiple screens act in tandem as input/output devices. This would allow for collaborative work in a much more natural style than allowed for by the single-user desktop workstations, in a way that reminds us of the original Spence and Apperley vision.
After over 20 years of WIMP desktop computing, the Bifocal display and the ideas derived from it are therefore in many ways more relevant than ever. We live in a world where multiple displays of different resolutions and sizes live side by side, much like in Spence and Apperley's vision of the future office. New interaction models have opened up new possibilities for zooming and focus+context based displays. For instance, multitouch devices such as smartphones and tablets make it completely intuitive to drag and stretch a virtual "rubber sheet" directly on the screen, instead of the single-point, once-removed interaction style of a mouse. I believe that this new crop of devices presents remarkable opportunities to revisit and build upon the original visualization ideas presented in Spence's text, and that we may have only seen the very start of their use in real-world applications.
References
- Björk, S., Holmquist, L.E., Redström, J., Bretan, I., Danielsson, R., Karlgren, J. and Franzén, K. WEST: A Web Browser for Small Terminals. Proc. ACM Conference on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST) '99, ACM Press, 1999.
- Baudisch, P., Good, N., and Stewart, P. Focus Plus Context Screens: Combining Display Technology with Visualization Techniques. In Proceedings of UIST 2001, Orlando, FL, November 2001, pp.31-40.
- Furnas, G.W. Generalized fisheye views. CHI '86 Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems.
- Holmquist, L.E. Focus+context visualization with flip zooming and the zoom browser. CHI '97 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems.
- Lamping, J., Rao, R. and Pirolli, P. A focus+context technique based on hyperbolic geometry for visualizing large hierarchies. CHI '95 Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems.
- Sanneblad, J. and Holmquist, L.E. Ubiquitous graphics: combining hand-held and wall-size displays to interact with large images. AVI '06 Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces.
- Sarkar, M. and Brown, M.H. Graphical Fisheye Views. Commun. ACM 37(12): 73-84 (1994)
7.1 Behind the scenes
Filming at Imperial College. ...
Filming at Imperial College. ...
On our way to meeting Bob at Imperial College we looked for ...
Filming at Imperial College. ...
Filming at Imperial College. ...
Mads is taking a picture of what's not actually a bifocal di...
Adjusting the audio of the different scenes and denoising. ...
Adjusting the audio of the different scenes and denoising. ...
Editing the video. Co...
7.4 User-contributed notes
Give us your opinion! Do you have any comments/additions
that you would like other visitors to see?
7.5 References
Apperley, Mark and Leung, Y. K. (1993b): A taxonomy of distortion-oriented techniques for data presentation. In: Salvendy, Gavriel and Smith, M. J. (eds.). "Advances in Human Factors/Ergonomics Vol 19B, Human-Computer Interaction: Software and Hardware Interfaces". Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier Science Publisherspp. 105-109
Apperley, Mark and Leung, Y. K. (1993a). A Unified Theory of Distortion-Oriented Presentation Techniques. Massey University
Apperley, Mark and Spence, Robert (1981). Focus on Information: the Office of the Professional (videotape), Imperial College Television Studio Production No. 1009. Retrieved 9 November 2010 from Imperial College Television Studio: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaTIMhCbhFo
Apperley, Mark and Spence, Robert (1981): A Professional's Interface Using the Bifocal Display. In: Proceedings of the 1981 Office Automation Conference 1981. pp. 313-315
Apperley, Mark, Spence, Robert and Wittenburg, Kent (2001): Selecting One from Many: The Development of a Scalable Visualization Tool. In: HCC 2001 - IEEE CS International Symposium on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments September 5-7, 2001, Stresa, Italy. pp. 366-372
Apperley, Mark, Tzavaras, I. and Spence, Robert (1982): A Bifocal Display Technique for Data Presentation. In: Eurographics 82 Proceedings 1982, Amsterdam. pp. 27-43
Bederson, Benjamin B., Clamage, Aaron, Czerwinski, Mary and Robertson, George G. (2004): DateLens: A fisheye calendar interface for PDAs. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 11 (1) pp. 90-119
Buxton, Bill (2007): Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design. Morgan Kaufmann
Cohen, Marcelo, Brodlie, Ken and Phillips, Nick (): Hardware-accelerated distortion for volume visualisation in medicine. In: Proceedings of the 4th IEEE EMBSS UKRI PG Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics 2005 . pp. 29-30
Farrand, William A. (1973). Information display in interactive design, Doctoral Thesis. University of California at Los Angeles
Forlines, Clifton and Shen, Chia (2005): DTLens: multi-user tabletop spatial data exploration. In: Proceedings of the 2005 ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology 2005. pp. 119-122
Furnas, George W. (1986): Generalized Fisheye Views. In: Mantei, Marilyn and Orbeton, Peter (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 86 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 13-17, 1986, Boston, Massachusetts. pp. 16-23
Guiard, Yves and Beaudouin-Lafon, Michel (2004): Target acquisition in multiscale electronic worlds. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 61 (6) pp. 875-905
© All rights reserved Guiard and Beaudouin-Lafon and/or Academic Press
Lamping, John and Rao, Ramana (1994): Laying Out and Visualizing Large Trees Using a Hyperbolic Space. In: Szekely, Pedro (ed.) Proceedings of the 7th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology November 02 - 04, 1994, Marina del Rey, California, United States. pp. 13-14
Leung, Ying K. and Apperley, Mark (1993): E{cubed}: Towards the Metrication of Graphical Presentation Techniques for Large Data Sets. In: East-West International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Proceedings of the EWHCI93 1993. pp. 9-26
Leung, Ying K. and Apperley, Mark (1993): Extending the Perspective Wall. In: Proceedings of OZCHI93, the CHISIG Annual Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 1993. pp. 110-120
Leung, Y. W. and Apperley, Mark (1994): A Review and Taxonomy of Distortion-Oriented Presentation Techniques. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 1 (2) pp. 126-160
Leung, Ying K., Spence, Robert and Apperley, Mark (1995): Applying Bifocal Displays to Topological Maps. In International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 7 (1) pp. 79-98
© All rights reserved Leung et al. and/or Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Mackinlay, Jock D., Robertson, George G. and Card, Stuart K. (1991): The Perspective Wall: Detail and Context Smoothly Integrated. In: Robertson, Scott P., Olson, Gary M. and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 91 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 28 - June 5, 1991, New Orleans, Louisiana. pp. 173-179
Mazza, Riccardo (2009): Introduction to Information Visualization. Springer
Modine, Austin (2008). Apple patents OS X Dock. Retrieved 9 November 2010 from The Register: http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/10/08/apple_patents_osx_dock/
Rao, Ramana and Card, Stuart K. (1994): The Table Lens: Merging Graphical and Symbolic Representations in an Interactive Focus+Context Visualization for Tabular Information. In: Adelson, Beth, Dumais, Susan and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 94 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-28, 1994, Boston, Massachusetts. pp. 318-322
Sarkar, Manojit, Snibbe, Scott S., Tversky, Oren J. and Reiss, Steven P. (1993): Stretching the Rubber Sheet: A Metophor for Visualizing Large Layouts on Small Screens. In: Hudson, Scott E., Pausch, Randy, Zanden, Brad Vander and Foley, James D. (eds.) Proceedings of the 6th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology 1993, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. pp. 81-91
Spence, Robert (2007): Information Visualization: Design for Interaction (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall
Spence, Robert (2001): Information Visualization. Addison Wesley
Spence, Robert and Apperley, Mark (1982): Data Base Navigation: An Office Environment for the Professional. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 1 (1) pp. 43-54
© All rights reserved Spence and Apperley and/or Taylor and Francis
Tidwell, Jenifer (2005): Designing Interfaces: Patterns for Effective Interaction Design. O'Reilly and Associates
Tobler, W. R. (1973): A continuous transformation useful for districting. In Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 219 p. 215–220
Ware, Colin (2004): Information Visualization: Perception for Design, 2nd Ed. San Francisco, Morgan Kaufman
Changes to this chapter
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About this chapter
Author(s): Robert Spence and Mark ApperleyEditors: Mads Soegaard and Rikke Friis Dam
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Commentaries by: Stuart K. Card and Lars Erik Holmquist
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Any dispute arising from the use of Interaction-Design.org or the interpretation of the terms is governed by the laws of Denmark, and shall be settled by the courts of Denmark. All communications regarding legal matters must be made in writing to
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About the authors
Read more >>
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Commentaries by:
Stuart K. Card
Stuart Card is a Senior Research Fellow and the manager of the User Interface Research group at the Palo Alto Research Center. His study of input devices led to the Fitts's Law characterization of the mouse and was a major factor leading to the mouse's commerc...
More about Stuart >>Lars Erik Holmquist
Lars Erik Holmquist is Professor in Media Technology at Södertörn University, manager of the Interaction Design and Innovation lab at the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, and a Research Leader at the Mobile Life VINN Excellence Centre in Kista, Sweden. H...
More about Lars >>Editors of this chapter:
Mads Soegaard
Rikke Friis Dam
Peer Reviewers
Reviewer 1: Name suppressed
Reviewer 2: Name suppressed
Peer-review is based on the reviewing guidelines and coordinated by the Reviewing Board.
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