Multimodal Affective Computing

 

Affective Computing is computing that relates to, arises from, or deliberately influences emotion or other affective phenomena (Picard 1997).

Research on automatic emotion recognition did not start until the 1990s. Although researchers like Ekman published studies on how people recognized emotions from face display in the 1960s (Ekman and Friesen 1968), people would find it absurd that anyone would even propose giving machines such abilities when emotional mechanisms were not considered to have a significant role in various aspects of human life. However, scientists found out that even in the most rational of decisions, emotions persist: emotions always exist, we always feel something.

In the early 1990s, Salovey and Mayer published a series of papers on emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer 1990). They suggested that the capacity to perceive and understand emotions define a new variable in personality. Goleman popularized his view of emotional intelligence or Emotional Quotient (EQ) in his 1995 best­selling book by discussing why EQ mattered more than Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (Goleman 1995). Goleman drew together research in neurophysiology, psychology and cognitive science. Other scientists also provided evidence that emotions were tightly coupled with all functions we, humans, are engaged with: attention, perception, learning, reasoning, decision making, planning, action selection, memory storage and retrieval (Isen 2000 and Picard 2003).

This new scientific understanding of emotions provided inspiration to various researchers for building machines that will have abilities to recognize, express, model, communicate, and respond to emotions. The initial focus has been on the recognition of the prototypical emotions from posed visual input, namely face expressions. All existing work in the early 1990s attempted to recognize prototypical emotions from two static face images: neutral and expressive. In the second half of 1990s, automated face expression analysis started focusing on posed video sequences and exploiting temporal information in the displayed face expressions. In parallel to the automatic emotion recognition from visual input, works focusing on audio input emerged. Rosalind Picard's award­winning book, Affective Computing, was published in 1997, laying the groundwork for giving machines the skills of emotional intelligence. The book triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users and a new research area called affective computing emerged. Affective computing advocated the idea that it might not be essential for machines to posses all the emotional intelligence and skills humans do. However, for natural and effective human­computer interaction, computers still needed to look intelligent to some extent (Picard, 1997). Experiments conducted by Reeves and Nass showed that for an intelligent interaction, the basic human­human issues should hold (Reeves and Nass 1996).

One major limitation of affective computing has been that most of the past research had focused on emotion recognition from one single sensorial source, or modality. However, as natural human­human interaction (HHI) is multimodal, the single sensory observations are often ambiguous, uncertain, and incomplete. It was not till 1998 that computer scientists attempted to use multiple modalities for recognition of emotions/affective states. The combined use of multiple modalities for sensing affective states in itself triggered another research area. What channels to use? And how to combine them? The initial interest was on fusing visual and audio data. The results were promising, using multiple modalities improved the overall recognition accuracy helping the systems function in a more efficient and reliable way. Starting from the work of Picard in 2001, interest in detecting emotions from physiological signals emerged. Moreover, researchers moved their focus from posed to spontaneous visual data (Braathen et al. 2002). Although a fundamental study by Ambady and Rosenthal suggested that the most significant channels for judging behavioural cues of humans appear to be the visual channels of face expressions and body gestures (Ambady and Rosenthal 1992), the existing literature on automatic emotion recognition did not focus on the expressive information that body gestures carry till 2003 (Hudlicka, 2003). Following the new findings in psychology, some researchers advocate that a reliable automatic affect recognition system should attempt to combine face expressions and body gestures. Accordingly, a number of approaches have been proposed for such sensorial sources (Gunes and Piccardi 2007), (Kapoor et al. 2007), (Karpouzis et al. 2007), (Lisetti and Nasoz 2002) and (Martin et al. 2006). With all these new areas, a number of new challenges have arisen.

Overall, the interest in affective computing has grown significantly in the last three years. In Europe (EU), Human­Machine Interaction Network on Emotion (HUMAINE) was created as a Network of Excellence in the EU's Sixth Framework Programme, under the Information Society Technologies (IST) programme (Humaine 2007). The HUMAINE Network started on 1st January 2004, and is funded to run for four years. In parallel to this the First international Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction was organized in 2005 bringing together researchers from diverse fields of research (ACII 2005).

Currently, every research group agrees that multiple modalities should be explored in order to understand which channels provide better information for automatic affect/emotion recognition. If a monomodal affect recognition system is compared to a multimodal one some of the assumptions made when building monomodal affect recognisers still hold (e.g., affect data collection is still needed). However, specific problems exist for multimodal affect recognition (e.g., multiple sensors are now required).Therefore, some new assumptions need to be taken into consideration.

The final stage affective computing has reached today is, combining multiple channels for affect recognition and moving from posed data towards spontaneous data. Achieving these aims is an open challenge. At this stage, scientists expect emotion recognition to be solvable by machine in the near future, at least as well as people can label such patterns (Picard 2003). A significant issue to note here is that, the focus of affective computing research field is gradually moving from just developing more efficient and effective automated techniques to concentrating on more context­/culture­/user­related aspects. In order to achieve the smooth transition aimed, it should be realised and understood that machine learning for human­computer applications is distinctively different from the conventional machine learning field. Issues such as loads of data, spatial coherence, and the large variety of appearances make affective behaviour analysis in particular, a special challenge for machine learning algorithms.

Today, the term affective computing has many aims in common with the recently emerging research field called human computing. Human computing is an interdisciplinary research field focusing on computing and computational artefacts as they relate to the human condition. As defined in (Pantic et al. 2007), human computing focuses on the human portion of the HCI context, going beyond the traditional keyboard and mouse to include natural, human­like interactive functions including understanding and emulating behavioural and social signalling. Human computing research field is interested in devising automated analysis algorithms that aim to extract, efficiently describe, and organise information regarding the state or state transition of individuals (identity, emotional state, activity, position and pose, etc), interactions between individuals (dialogue, gestures, engagement into collaborative or competitive activities like sports), and physical characteristics of humans (anthropometric characteristics, 3D head/body models) (Pantic et al. 2007).

Starting from the survey by Pantic, Pentland, Nijholt and Huang (Pantic et al. 2007), special sessions have already been organised and special journal issues have been proposed in this field:

  • Special session on Human Computing at the ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces, November 2006.
  • Workshop on Artificial Intelligence for Human Computing in conjunction with the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, January 2007.
  • International Workshop on Human­Centered Multimedia in Conjunction with ACM Multimedia 2007.
  • International Journal of Image and Video Processing, special issue on Anthropocentric Video Analysis: Tools and Applications, 2007.
  • Lecture Notes on Artificial Intelligence (LNAI), special volume on AI for Human Computing, 2007.
  • IEEE Computer Magazine, Special Issue on Human­Centered Computing, 2007.
  • IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Part B, special issue on Human Computing, 2007.

Although research fields such as affective computing, human computing and multimodal interfaces seem to be detached and have their own research community/conferences/audience, as prophesied by some researchers (e.g., Pantic et al. 2007), future progress in these fields is likely to bring them together and merge them into one single most widespread research area within computer science, artificial intelligence and CHI research communities. The future direction in these research fields is to advance further by making computers/machines/devices/environments more human­like rather than forcing humans to act machine­like. Further progress is mandatory in order to achieve this common goal.

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References

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ACII 2005: First International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction October 22-24, 2005, Beijing, China.

Ambady, Nalini and Rosenthal, Robert (1992): Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta­analysis. In Psychological Bulletin, 11 (2) pp. 256-274.

Braathen, Bjorn, Littlewort, Gwen and Smith, Evan (2002): An approach to automatic recognition of spontaneous facial actions. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on automatic face and gesture recognition 2002. pp. 231-235.

Ekman, Paul and Friesen, Wallace V. (1968): Nonverbal behavior in psychotherapy research. In Research in Psychotherapy, pp. 179-216.

Goleman, Daniel (1995): Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ. New York, USA, Bantam Books

Gunes, Hatice and Piccardi, Massimo (2007): Bi­modal emotion recognition from expressive face and body gestures. In Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 30 (4) pp. 1334-1345.

Hudlicka, Eva (2003): To feel or not to feel: the role of affect in human­computer interaction. In International Journal of Human­Computer Studies, 59 (1) pp. 1-32.

Isen, Alice M. (2000): Positive affect and decision making. In: Lewis, Michael and Haviland­Jones, Jeannette M. (eds.). "Handbook of Emotions". New York, USA: Guilford

Kapoor, Ashish, Burleson, Winslow and Picard, Rosalind W. (2007): Automatic prediction of frustration. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 65 (8) pp. 724-736. Available online

Predicting when a person might be frustrated can provide an intelligent system with important information about when to initiate interaction. For example, an automated Learning Companion or Intelligent Tutoring System might use this information to intervene, providing support to the learner who is likely to otherwise quit, while leaving engaged learners free to discover things without interruption. This paper presents the first automated method that assesses, using multiple channels of affect-related information, whether a learner is about to click on a button saying "I'm frustrated." The new method was tested on data gathered from 24 participants using an automated Learning Companion. Their indication of frustration was automatically predicted from the collected data with 79% accuracy (chance=58%). The new assessment method is based on Gaussian process classification and Bayesian inference. Its performance suggests that non-verbal channels carrying affective cues can help provide important information to a system for formulating a more intelligent response.

© All rights reserved Kapoor et al. and/or Academic Press

Karpouzis, Kostas, Caridakis, George, Kessous, Loïc, Amir, Noam, Raouzaiou, Amaryllis, Malatesta, Lori and Kollias, Stefanos D. (2007): Modeling naturalistic affective states via facial, vocal, and bodily expressions recognition. In Lecture Notes on Artificial Intelligence, 4451 pp. 91-112.

Lisetti, Christine L. and Nasoz, Fatma (2002): Maui: A multimodal affective user interface. In: Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Multimedia 2002. pp. 161-170.

Martin, Jean­Claude, Niewiadomski, Radoslaw, Devillers, Laurence, Buisine, Stephanie and Pelachaud, Catherine (2006): Multimodal complex emotions: Gesture expressivity and blended facial expressions. In Journal of Humanoid Robotics, 3 p. 831–843.

Pantic, Maja, Pentland, Alex, Nijholt, Anton and Huang, Thomas S. (2007): Human Computing and Machine Understanding of Human Behavior: A Survey. In Artificial Intelligence for Human Computing, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 4451 pp. 47-71.

Picard, Rosalind W. (1997): Affective computing. Ma, USA, The MIT Press

Picard, Rosalind W. (2003): Affective computing: challenges. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 1 pp. 55-64.

Picard, Rosalind W., Vyzas, Elias and Healey, Jennifer (2001): Toward machine emotional intelligence: analysis of affective physiological state. In IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 23 (10) pp. 1175-1191.

Reeves, Byron and Nass, Clifford (1996): The media equation: How people treat computers, television and new media like real people and places. Cambridge University Press

Salovey, Peter and Mayer, John D. (1990): Emotional intelligence. In Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9 pp. 185-211.

The HUMAINE Association (2008). Humaine. Retrieved 4 February 2008 from The HUMAINE Association: http://emotion­research.net

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  16. Trademarks and logos:
        All trademarks, logos, service marks, collective marks, design rights, personality rights or similar rights that are mentioned, used or cited on Interaction-Design.org are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark on Interaction-Design.org does not vest in the author or The Interaction-Design.org Foundation any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of The Interaction-Design.org Foundation and its authors by such owners. As such The Interaction-Design.org Foundation can not grant any rights to use any otherwise protected materials. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk.

In addition, content linked from a page is not covered by one of our licenses unless specifically noted. For example, pages may link to videos or slide decks that are not covered. The design of Interaction-Design.org (graphics, html, client-side scripts, etc.) is copyright of Mads Soegaard.

iv. The Site Terms and Conditions

Please read these terms and conditions (the "Terms") carefully before using Interaction-Design.org. By using Interaction-Design.org you signify your consent to these Terms. If you do not agree to the Terms please do not use Interaction-Design.org. The Terms addresses your legal rights and obligations and includes important disclaimers and choice of law and forum provisions. Please read carefully.

1. Ownership of Interaction-Design.org

Interaction-Design.org is owned and operated by The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, a privately held corporation incorporated under the laws of Denmark, with office in Aarhus, Denmark.

Address:
The Interaction-Design.org Foundation
Att: Mads Soegaard
Chr. Molbechs Vej 4
DK-8000 Aarhus C.
Denmark

2. Choice of Law and Forum Provisions

Interaction-Design.org is run by The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, a privately held corporation residing in Aarhus, Denmark. You agree that these Terms and your use of Interaction-Design.org are governed by the laws of Denmark. You hereby consent to the exclusive jurisdiction and venue of the courts, tribunals, agencies and other dispute resolution organizations in Denmark in all disputes

  1. arising out of, relating to, or concerning Interaction-Design.org, The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, and/or these Terms
  2. in which Interaction-Design.org, The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, and/or these Terms is an issue or a material fact
  3. or in which Interaction-Design.org, The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, and/or these Terms is referenced in a paper filed in a court, tribunal, agency or other dispute resolution organization.

The Interaction-Design.org Foundation has endeavoured to comply with all legal requirements known to it in creating and maintaining Interaction-Design.org, but makes no representation that materials on Interaction-Design.org are appropriate or available for use in any particular jurisdiction. You are responsible for compliance with applicable laws. Any use in contravention of this provision or any provision of these Terms is at your own risk and, if any part of these Terms is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, the invalid or unenforceable provision will be deemed superseded by a valid, enforceable provision that most closely matches the intent of the original provision and the remainder of these Terms shall govern such use.

3. Liability

Your use of and browsing Interaction-Design.org is at your own risk. The Interaction-Design.org Foundation does not warrant that the software used for Interaction-Design.org, and the information, material, and content on it, or any other services provided by means of Interaction-Design.org are error-free, or that their use will be uninterrupted. The Interaction-Design.org Foundation expressly disclaims all warranties related to the above-mentioned subject matter, including, without limitation, those of accuracy, condition, merchantability and fitness for particular purpose. Notwithstanding anything to the contrary on Interaction-Design.org, in no event shall The Interaction-Design.org Foundation be liable for any loss of profits, revenues, indirect, special, incidental, consequential, or other similar damages arising out of or in connection with Interaction-Design.org or out of the use of any of the services proposed by means of Interaction-Design.org.

4. Updates

The Interaction-Design.org Foundation reserves the unilateral right to update, modify, change and alter its Site Terms and Conditions as well as Copyright Terms at any time. All such updates, modifications, changes and alterations are binding on all users and browsers of Interaction-Design.org and will be posted here.

5. Legal Disclaimer

The Interaction-Design.org Foundation and its authors make no representations as to accuracy, completeness, currentness, suitability, or validity of any information, material, or content on Interaction-Design.org.

THE MATERIAL AND CONTENT POSTED ON INTERACTION-DESIGN.ORG ARE PROVIDED "AS IS" WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS WARRANTY OR IMPLIED WARRANTY OF ANY KIND INCLUDING WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, NON-INFRINGEMENT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE INTERACTION-DESIGN.ORG FOUNDATION BE LIABLE FOR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF PROFITS, BUSINESS INTERRUPTION, LOSS OF INFORMATION) ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF OR INABILITY TO USE THE MATERIALS, EVEN IF THE INTERACTION-DESIGN.ORG FOUNDATION HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

Because some jurisdictions prohibit the exclusion or limitation of liability for consequential and or incidental damages, the above limitation may not apply to you. Furthermore, The Interaction-Design.org Foundation does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of information of links or other items contained within these materials that have been provided by third parties.

6. Provision regarding change in attribution of copyrighted materials

Please contact us at mads@interaction-design.org if you, or your organization, wish to correct or change attribution or presentation of any image/material used on Interaction-Design.org, which you, or your organization, are the rightful copyright holder of. We will request that you submit proof of your ownership of the copyright on this material but will act immediately on any reasonable request.

7. Notice and prodecure for claims of copyright infringement

Every effort has been made by the individual contributing authors as well as The Interaction-Design.org Foundation to discover and contact copyright holders of artwork/illustrations/content used on Interaction-Design.org. To the extent that a copyright holder could not be found or an inadvertent permissions or copyright error was made, The Interaction-Design.org Foundation stands ready to remove content upon notice and request by a copyright holder. In the case that you believe that any content or other material provided through Interaction-Design.org infringes your copyright, you should notify The Interaction-Design.org Foundation of your infringement claim in accordance with the procedure set forth below.

We will process each notice of alleged infringement which The Interaction-Design.org Foundation receives and take appropriate action in accordance with applicable intellectual property laws. A notification of claimed copyright infringement should be emailed to mads@interaction-design.org (subject: "Takedown Request"). You may also contact us by mail at:

The Interaction-Design.org Foundation
Att: Mads Soegaard
Chr. Molbechs Vej 4
DK-8000 Aarhus C.
Denmark

To be effective, the notification must be in writing and contain the following information:

  1. an electronic or physical signature of the copyright owner or the person authorized to act on behalf of the owner of the copyright interest
  2. a description of the copyrighted work that you claim has been infringed
  3. a description of where the material that you claim is infringing is located on Interaction-Design.org that is reasonably sufficient to enable us to identify and locate the material;
  4. how The Interaction-Design.org Foundation can contact you, such as your address, telephone number, and email address
  5. a written statement by you that you have a good faith belief that the disputed use is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law
  6. if you represent a publisher, a written statement by you that you have a good faith belief that the material has not been placed in the public domain, or licenced under another licence, before you acquired the copyright as this would possibly invalidate your copyright
  7. and a statement by you, made under penalty of perjury, that the above information in your notice is accurate and that you are the copyright owner or authorized to act on the copyright owner's behalf.

8. Trademarks and other rights

All trademarks, logos, service marks, collective marks, design rights, personality rights or similar rights that are mentioned, used or cited on Interaction-Design.org are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark on Interaction-Design.org does not vest in the author or The Interaction-Design.org Foundation any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of The Interaction-Design.org Foundation and its authors by such owners. As such The Interaction-Design.org Foundation can not grant any rights to use any otherwise protected materials. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk.

9. Screenshots

Screenshots of copyrighted computer software, for which the copyright is held by the author(s) or the company that created the software, is believed to fall under the fair use doctrine in the US (and similar laws in other countries). It is believed that reproduction for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, or research is not copyright infringement. If you reuse screenshots, as well as any other information on Interaction-Design.org, you do so at your own risk and under the copyright laws of your country.

10. Copyright of Abstracts

Abstracts in the Wiki Bibliography (/references/) are submitted by their authors who use the wiki to make their research as accessible as possible. When a page on Interaction-Design.org cites/references/lists a work from the bibliography, its abstract is included. However, abstracts have varying copyrights depending which publisher the work is published through. You should assume that an abstract is copyright, all rights reserved, of its publisher and/or author and therefore always use/cite abstracts according to Fair Use. You may visit the publisher's website to learn about the specific copyright terms (e.g. ACM, IEEE, or Springer) or contact the author directly. Bottom line: Cite/use abstracts according to the principles of fair use as it may otherwise be construed as a copyright infringement and subject to legal action.

11. User Submissions / User Content

You understand and acknowledge that additions to the Wiki Bibliography (including article abstracts), additions the Conference Calendar (including conference descriptions), user-contributed notes on each page (including text, photographs, graphics), or other materials posted by users on Interaction-Design.org ("Content") are the sole responsibility of the person from whom such Content originated. This means that you, and not The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, are entirely responsible for all Content that you upload, post or otherwise make available to other users of Interaction-Design.org.

When submitting content to Interaction-Design.org, you agree to not:

  1. impersonate any person or entity or falsely state or otherwise misrepresent your affiliation with a person or entity;
  2. upload, post or otherwise make available any Content that you do not have a right to make available under any law or under contractual or fiduciary relationships (such as inside information, proprietary and confidential information learned or disclosed as part of employment relationships or under nondisclosure agreements);
  3. upload, post or otherwise make available any Content that infringes any patent, trademark, trade secret, copyright or other proprietary rights ("Rights") of any party;
  4. upload, post or otherwise make available any Content that is unlawful, harmful, threatening, abusive, harassing, tortious, defamatory, vulgar, obscene, libelous, invasive of another's privacy, hateful, or racially, ethnically or otherwise objectionable;

You acknowledge that The Interaction-Design.org Foundation shall have the right to remove any Content that violates these Site Terms and Conditions or is otherwise objectionable.

12. Third Party Websites

If we provide links or pointers to other websites, no inference or assumption should be made that The Interaction-Design.org Foundation operates, controls, or is otherwise connected with these websites. When you click on a link within Interaction-Design.org, we will not warn you that you have left a Site and are subject to the terms and conditions (including privacy policies) of the destination website. In some cases it may be less obvious than others that you have left a Site and reached another website. Please be careful to read the terms of use and privacy policy of any website before you provide any confidential information or engage in any transactions. You should not rely on these Terms for another website. The Interaction-Design.org Foundation is not responsible for the content or practices of any other website. By using Interaction-Design.org, you acknowledge and agree that The Interaction-Design.org Foundation is not responsible or liable to you for any content or other materials hosted and served from any third party website.

13. Email communication: Confidential and proprietary information notice

Email messages sent from members of The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, including emails generated from the use of the interaction-design.org website, are proprietary to The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, and are intended solely for the use of the individual to whom they are addressed. Such messages may contain privileged or confidential information and should not be circulated or used for any purpose other than for what they are intended. If you receive a message from a member of The Interaction-Design.org Foundation in error, please notify the sender immediately. If you are not the intended recipient, you are hereby notified that you are strictly prohibited from using, copying, altering, or disclosing the contents of the message. The Interaction-Design.org Foundation accepts no responsibility for loss or damage arising from the use of the information transmitted by email message including damage from virus.

14. Usage conditions

Please make sure that you understand that the information provided by The Interaction-Design.org Foundation is being provided freely, and that no kind of agreement or contract is created between you and the owners, partners, users, or authors of this site, the owners of the servers upon which it is housed, the individual contributors of the The Interaction-Design.org Foundation, any project administrators, sysops or anyone else who is in any way connected with this project. If you choose to use or copy anything from from this site it does not create or imply any contractual or extracontractual liability on the part of The Interaction-Design.org Foundation or any of its members, partners, sponsors, contributors or other users. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk.

15. Legal Disputes

Any dispute arising from the use of Interaction-Design.org or the interpretation of the terms is governed by the laws of Denmark, and shall be settled by the courts of Denmark. All communications regarding legal matters must be made in writing to

The Interaction-Design.org Foundation
Att: Mads Soegaard
Chr. Molbechs Vej 4
DK-8000 Aarhus C.
Denmark


 

About the author

Picture of Hatice Gunes. © Hatice Gunes
Dr Hatice Gunes is a Lecturer (Assistant Professor) at the School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London (QMUL), UK. She received her Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Australia, in September 2007 for her multi-cue and multi-sensory approach to automatic recognition of emotions from face-and-body express...   
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