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Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting
Time and place:
1988
Series:
This is a preferred venue for people like Christopher D. Wickens, Michael S. Wogalter, Colin G. Drury, Thomas B. Malone, and Robert S. Kennedy. Part of the The Human Factors Society Annual Meeting conference series.
Conf. description:
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting is the annual conference of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
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References from this conference (1988)
The following articles are from "Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting":
Articles
p. 10-14
Reardon, Kimberly A. (1988): The Effects of Nested Texture on a Landing-Judgment Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 10-14.
“Nested texture can be described as smaller units embedded within larger units or forms within forms (Gibson, 1966). This is reflected in real scenes, e.g., as one moves toward a surface the eye resolves more detail. With the advent of high-fidelity simulators we can now generate a hierarchy of texture patterns that emerge as a function of altitude, but how this affects pilot performance is unclear. This study examined the effect of nested texture with four types of displays in a landing-judgment task. Subjects viewed a simulated landing approach to a runway which stopped in "mid air" and were asked to indicate where they would land if they continued on the same path. Results show that when texture was nested as a function of altitude, performance was not significantly better than when texture was constant throughout the trial. Display type affected performance with subjects perceiving their aimpoint further down the runway as complexity of the texture increased. The landing-judgment study should be followed up with an active-control task before recommendations for visual displays are made.”
p. 1000
Turnage, Janet J. (1988): Individual Differences Make a Difference in Systems Research. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 1000.
“Despite a long history within the field of experimental psychology to repudiate and even reject individual differences in statistical analyses of data by treating such differences as "within-group variances" or "error variances," the effects of individual differences on performance outcomes are tremendous. Humans vary greatly in human behavior and performance, where”
p. 1001-1005
Nolan, Margaret D., Hettinger, Lawrence J., Kennedy, Robert S. and Edinger, Katrina M. (1988): Individual Differences in Flight Simulation Performance Experiments. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1001-1005.
“In a review of flight simulation performance experiments conducted at the U.S. Navy's Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS), it was observed that individual difference variables accounted for a major portion of the total explained variance, in many cases more than the simulator equipment variables that were deliberately manipulated. This finding underscores the importance of individual differences in performance and training research in support of man-machine systems development and implementation. The identification of the substrata underlying individual differences will impact on equipment design considerations and training program requirements for military and industrial systems.”
p. 1006-1010
Ackerman, Phillip L. and Sager, Christopher E. (1988): Cognitive/Intellectual Abilities as Predictors of Skilled Performance: Answering the Which, When and How Questions. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1006-1010.
“Recently, there has been a re-emergence of interest in the cognitive ability determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition and skilled performance. First we review some basic characteristics of individual differences in skill acquisition. We next consider the current evidence for the emergent "task-specific" factor, a matter that may have important implications for the utility of ability measures as predictors of individual differences in asymptotic skilled performance. We also review two major factors in determining the relations between abilities and individual differences in skill acquisition, advances in theory and the enlargement of the data base for discussion of the topic. We address these factors, in the context of a discussion of "which" abilities predict individual differences in skilled performance, "when" such predictors are maximally effective, and "how" abilities and information processing demands interact to determine ability-performance associations.”
p. 1011-1015
Stokes, Alan F., Banich, Marie T., Elledge, Valorie C. and Ke, Ying (1988): Evaluation of Cognitive Function in Aviators. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1011-1015.
“The FAA is concerned that flight-safety could be compromised by undetected cognitive impairment in pilots due to conditions such as substance abuse, mental illness and neuropsychological problems. Interest has been shown in the possibility of adding a brief "mini mental exam", or a simple automated test-battery to the standard flight medical to screen for such conditions. This paper reports an empirical evaluation of four such tests, focusing upon a prototype version of an automated screen battery, SPARTANS (Simple Portable Aviation Relevant Test-battery and Answer-scoring System).”
p. 1016-1020
Fowlkes, Jennifer E., Kennedy, Robert S., Dunlap, William P. and Harbeson, Mary M. (1988): A Paradigm for the Identification of Independent Cognitive Constructs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1016-1020.
“A promising approach in recent years has been to develop measures of individual differences based upon componential cognitive theory to supplement or supplant traditional measures. Cognitive tests are developed to measure theoretically based mental operations which can be isolated by the computation of derived measures such as slope and difference scores. Along with others, we believe there are impediments to this approach due to unreliability of derived measures and lack of demonstrated statistical independence of tests of cognitive abilities. This paper describes a methodology for examining measures of individual differences in information processing skills that first follows the tenets of psychometric theory and then addresses cognitive theories. The approach is illustrated by demonstrating its application in tests representing four distinct cognitive paradigms which were administered repeatedly to subjects over three weeks. Recommended direct measures and derived scores for the four paradigms were examined in terms of their stabilities, retest reliabilities, and cross-correlations. Use of these procedures revealed that 1) derived scores had reliabilities near zero, and therefore, their correlations with other variables were equally low, rendering them of little use as individual difference variables, and 2) correlations between basic or nonderived scores were as high as their reliabilities would allow, suggesting that one common factor could account for the majority of the variance. The generality of this repeated measures paradigmatic approach to the identification of individual differences in human ability is illustrated by describing its application to the evaluation of a family of video games, tests of episodic memory, and visual contrast sensitivity at different spatial frequencies.”
p. 102-106
Fracker, Martin L. (1988): A Theory of Situation Assessment: Implications for Measuring Situation Awareness. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 102-106.
“Measures of pilot situation awareness (SA) are needed in order to know whether new concepts in display design help pilots keep track of rapidly changing tactical situations. In order to measure SA, a theory of situation assessment is needed. In this paper, I summarize such a theory encompassing both a definition of SA and a model of situation assessment. SA is defined as the pilot's knowledge about a zone of interest at a given level of abstraction. Pilots develop this knowledge by sampling data from the environment and matching the sampled data to knowledge structures stored in long-term memory. Matched knowledge structures then provide the pilot's assessment of the situation and serve to guide his attention. A number of cognitive biases that result from the knowledge matching process are discussed, as are implications for partial report measures of situation awareness.”
p. 1021-1025
Lincoln, Janet E. and Boff, Kenneth R. (1988): Making Behavioral Data Useful for System Design Applications: Development of the Engineering Data Compendium. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1021-1025.
“In spite of the critical need to match the capabilities of complex human-interfaced systems to the capabilities and limitations of the human operator, relevant research findings on human perception and performance are seldom given systematic consideration in the design of control and display systems. A major reason is that the costs and risks associated with accessing, interpreting, and applying these data are unacceptably high to designers already overburdened with technical information. To help reduce these costs, the Integrated Perceptual Information for Designers (IPDP) program has developed: (1) a procedure for compiling and integrating widely scattered human performance research data with potential application in system design; and (2) a format for presenting these data so they can be used directly by practitioners to support design decisions and trade-offs. This data consolidation procedure and presentation format have been used to produce a full-scale demonstration data resource, the Engineering Data Compendium, that integrates information from over 75 subareas of human perception and performance into a 4-volume reference work for designers.”
p. 1026-1030
Marken, Richard S. (1988): Spreadsheet Macros for Rapid Prototyping of Computer Interface Dialogues. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1026-1030.
“The Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet macro language provides a low-cost, readily accessible, and easy-to-use method for rapidly building prototypes of computer interface dialogue systems. This method of prototyping was used to evaluate specifications for the human interface component of a satellite ground control system. The prototype mimics the essential functional components of the interface dialogue, and is easily modified, making it possible to determine whether recommended changes in dialogue specifications produce actual improvements in dialogue design.”
p. 1031-1035
Bregman, Howard L., McCabe, Warren L. and Sutcliffe, William G. (1988): Capturing Air Traffic Controller Expertise for Incorporation in Automated Air Traffic Control Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1031-1035.
“Under Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sponsorship, MITRE's Human Performance Assessment Group is contributing to the design of an expert system to support air traffic control. We are working closely with a team of expert, full-performance-level air traffic controllers to capture the formal and informal rules they use in maintaining flight safety and efficiency. This paper documents our approach to working with these experts, the results of using that approach, and a distillation of lessons learned.”
p. 1036-1040
Wilson, Denise L., Kuperman, Gilbert G., Crawford, Robyn L. and Perez, William A. (1988): Artificial Intelligence (AI) System Interface Attributes: Survey and Analyses. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1036-1040.
“This study represents a first phase in the design of a human factors tool for artificial intelligence (AI) system assessment. Desirable attributes of AI interfaces were identified as a result of a review of the literature. A questionnaire was developed where explicit definitions were presented for 17 selected attributes. Nineteen AI system developers rated the attributes under four different context conditions: (1) no context (i.e., general application); (2) a bomber crew system; (3) a command and control station; and (4) an intelligence analyst position. Examination of the ratings showed that attributes pertaining to tasks which impose a high level of time stress received the highest ratings of importance. The ratings data were subjected to Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) analyses where the following dimensions were determined: (1) tasks performed principally by the system versus tasks requiring system-human communication; and (2) system attributes that principally require algorithmic interpretation versus those that require a high level of AI capabilities.”
p. 1041-1045
Lorenzetti, Robert, Williamson, Janet, Hoffman, Larry, Beck, Tim and Maguire, Frank (1988): A Case Study in Large Scale Computer Human Interaction Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1041-1045.
“The Reliability & Maintainability Information System (REMIS) is being developed by a team of Litton Computer Services, Tandem Computers, and SofTech under contract to the Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) Logistics Management Support Center. Its purpose is to make accessible to AF managers worldwide, the data necessary to keep weapon systems combat ready in peace and sustain them in war. REMIS will modernize the collection and use of inventory, status, utilization, operational reliability, maintenance, configuration, mission capability, and awaiting parts data for aircraft, trainers, automatic test equipment, Communications-Electronics (C-E) equipment, and support equipment. The Government procurement request for REMIS envisioned the need for human engineering of the Human Computer Interface (HCI), but there were no requirements to deliver human factors analysis documentation nor to conduct any formal testing. The HCI design task was eventually assigned to an ad hoc team (Messrs. Lorenzetti, Beck and Maguire) with no formal human engineering experience, and with severe time constraints. Design of a user-friendly systems under these constraints (using available human factors data sources) proved to be a challenging exercise. This paper presents a description of the informal user surveys and qualitative evaluations that were used as a surrogate to the more formal approaches normally recommended. After the fact, the over 900 guidelines in Smith and Mosier were reviewed, with 75 found to be specifically applicable to REMIS. REMIS conformance to each of the 75 guidelines was then assessed. Although the REMIS design was evaluated as reasonably good, we concluded that specific human engineering requirements, schedule, budget, and documentation should be provided. The accessibility of human factors data supporting design should be substantially improved if better quality HCI's are to be assured.”
p. 1046-1050
Glenn, Floyd (1988): A Human Operator Model Management Environment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1046-1050.
“Inadequacies of existing simulation and modeling tools in supporting development and evaluation of man-machine systems are considered. A new tool is proposed to support the development and use, by the end user, of a base of fundamental human performance models representing alternative factors and levels of detail. The Human Operator Model Management Environment (HOMME) is designed to aid in the construction and management of human performance models that are used as elements of larger man-machine system performance simulations. HOMME aids the user in constructing performance procedures and in defining the control interrelations between procedures, as well as in storing, retrieving, and editing procedures generated in earlier simulation efforts. It is intended to serve as an adjunct tool to the more general simulation shell known as HOS-IV.”
p. 1051-1055
Harris, Regina M., Iavecchia, Helene P. and Bittner, Alvah C. (1988): Everything You Always Wanted to Know about HOS Micromodels but Were Afraid to Ask. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1051-1055.
“HOS-IV is a general purpose simulation tool for modeling human operators, systems and the environment. To build a simulation, inputs to the model typically include descriptions of the system design, procedures for using the system, human operator characteristics, and a mission scenario. A set of operator micromodels are available to the HOS user to assist in the development of the simulation. These micromodels contain algorithms, based on experimental literature, that can predict the timing and accuracy of basic human cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor actions. This paper describes the current set of human performance models available in HOS-IV as well as micromodels planned for development.”
p. 1056-1059
O'Brien, Larry (1988): Manpower Constraints Aid (M-CON) and Personnel Constraints Aid (P-CON). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1056-1059.
“This paper describes the Manpower Constraints Aid (M-CON) and the Personnel Constraints Aid (P-CON). Both aids are being developed under the Army Research Institute's (ARI's) project to develop improved MANPRINT methods. The M-CON Aid and P-CON Aid will assist Army analysts in producing estimates of manpower and personnel constraints during the earliest phases of the acquisition process. These constraints will be incorporated into requirements documents, system specifications, and MANPRINT target audience descriptions.”
p. 1060-1064
Laughery, K. Ronald, Dahl, Susan, Kaplan, Jonathan, Archer, Rick and Fontenelle, Gail (1988): A Manpower Determination Aid Based upon System Performance Requirements. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1060-1064.
“This paper discusses two of the six software tools which are being developed as part of the Army Research Institute's MANPRINT Methods development program. The first tool discussed here is known as the System performance and RAM Constraints Aid or SPARC. This tool permits system designers to determine levels of subfunction performance which are required to achieve function and higher level mission requirements. These levels of subfunction and function performance then serve as requirements which are fed into the second tool, the Manpower Systems Evaluation Aid (MAN-SEVAL). MAN-SEVAL takes as input the system design and then predicts the operator and maintainer manpower required to achieve the required levels of task and function performance. For maintenance manpower evaluation, MAN-SEVAL considers component failure rates, time to perform maintenance, and the mission scenario. For operator manpower and to estimate maintenance task times, MAN-SEVAL conducts an analysis of workload, control/display accessibility, and maximum acceptable performance time to allocate tasks across crewmembers. Because all manpower requirements are truly driven by system performance requirements, these two tools are being developed collectively with common data bases and software design. While they are currently being developed for the Army, they will be useful general purpose manpower analysis tools.”
p. 1065-1067
O'Brien, Larry (1988): Personnel-Based System Evaluation Aid (PER-SEVAL). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1065-1067.
“This paper describes the Personnel-Based System Evaluation Aid (PER-SEVAL), one of the automated tools being developed under the Army Research Institute's project to develop improved MANPRINT methods. The PER-SEVAL Aid will assist Army analysts in identifying the quality of personnel needed to support a particular contractor's design.”
p. 1068-1072
Hill, Susan G., Zaklad, Allen L., Bittner, Alvah C., Byers, James C. and Christ, Richard E. (1988): The Workload Assessment of a Mobile Air Defense Missile System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1068-1072.
“Four operator workload (OWL) scales were retrospectively applied to crewmembers of a mobile air defense missile system, LOS-F(H), following a candidate-selection field evaluation: NASA TLX, SWAT, Overall Workload (OW), and the Modified Cooper-Harper (MCH). Jackknife factor analysis revealed the presence of only a single factor (explaining 79.6% of the total variation) and indicated a significant (p<.0075) ordering of the mean factor loadings: TLX (.935) and OW (.927) were significantly greater than MCH (.862) and SWAT (.860). Comparison with an earlier field test of a remotely piloted vehicle revealed a significant (p<.00005) interaction of test and ordering of the OWL scales, but TLX and MCH consistently had the respectively highest and lowest loadings across the two field tests. Multiple correlation also revealed a significant (p<.0001) relationship, R = 0.66, between system performance and TLX. These findings and lessons learned are discuss in the context of the development and validation of a methodology for assessing OWL.”
p. 107-110
Kibbe, Marion P. (1988): Information Transfer from Intelligent EW Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 107-110.
“Dual-task performance and recalled information data were used to compare levels of situational awareness from manual and automated threat recognition tasks. Dual-task performance reflected the effects of monitoring an automated system while tracking. There were no differences in information transfer as a function of automation.”
p. 1073-1077
Zachary, Wayne, Zubritzky, Monica C. and Glenn, Floyd A. (1988): The Development of the Air Anti-Submarine Warfare Mission Testbed as a Tool for the Development of Operator Models. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1073-1077.
“The central concern of human factors engineering (HFE) is facilitating a productive relationship between man and machine. A new generation of man-machine systems has arisen in which the machine acts in a relatively intelligent manner to enhance the operator's decision-making capabilities in real-time multi-tasking situations. These systems have been termed "distributed intelligence systems" (DIS) because intelligence is distributed among all system entities, whether they are human or computer. The ability of these systems to aid humans in a flexible, interactive fashion depends on the capability of the machine to predict the human's information needs in a given decision-making situation. Thus, the DIS must incorporate a model that reflects the operator's information processing requirements for the tasks necessary to operate the system. Of construct this model, it is necessary to develop a DIS testbed where experimental investigations can occur. The mission environment chosen for simulation is the Naval Air Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) mission, whose objectives to search for, find, and attack the enemy submarine involve complex tactical decisions in a real-time multi-tasking environment. In the Air ASW mission, most significant tactical decisions are made by the Tactical Coordinator (TACCO), the main operator of the system. The aspects of the testbed discussed in this paper include those elements of the simulation and responsibilities of the TACCO needed to illustrate the types of information processing tasks involved in the ASW mission. Also, the data collection capabilities of the testbed and how this data will be applied to operator model development will be discussed.”
p. 1078-1081
Sams, Michelle R. and Fernandez, Joel H. (1988): A Concept Evaluation of an Electronic Delivery of Maintenance Information. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1078-1081.
“This study evaluated the concept of using electronically delivered technical procedures to support maintenance operations in lieu of paper feasibility, and human factors issues. The Electronic Maintenance Publication System (EMPS) was tested on the PATRIOT system, an air defense missile system. No significant difference in maintenance time was found between EMPS or paper manuals. Errors committed while performing the tasks were negligible. Human factors issues were considered primarily to evaluate the concept of an electronic delivery and to guide refinement and future development of the system. Based on this study, it was concluded that an electronic delivery of maintenance information (as tested in EMPS) is an effective and feasible alternative to paper publications.”
p. 1082-1084
Hollingsworth, Sam R. and Mikula, Mark B. (1988): Use of a Crew Display Demonstrator to Evaluate Combat Vehicle Command and Control System Concepts. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1082-1084.
“The U.S. Army Tank Automotive Command (TACOM) has developed a Vetronics Crew Display Demonstrator (VCDD) to aid in the design of crew-such vehicles in future land combat vehicles. One major component of which will be combat vehicle command and control (CVC2) system, which will include innovative navigation and communication functions. The VCDD has been configured to simulate a range of CVC2 system concepts that vary widely in appearance and method of crew-system interaction. Use of the VCDD has provided TACOM with insights into the potential benefits of alternative CVC2 system concepts, and will support continued development of CVC2 system requirements.”
p. 1085-1089
Maher, Michael (1988): A Militarized System with Complete Control Exercised Without Hardware Switches. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1085-1089.
“This paper describes the Man-Machine Interface for a militarized radar system. The interface strives to achieve high reliability in terms of both hardware and operator performance, and allows a single operator the ability to control all aspects of the radar system. To accomplish this, a computer controlled touch input design has been assembled, is being tested, and can be fielded in the early 1990's. Reduction in operator fatigue and increases in operator proficiency are combined with the capabilities to minimize required training time and money, provide a system capable of cost effective updates and growth along with the ability for rapid, real time reconfiguration due to failed electronics or changing battlefield conditions.”
p. 1090-1094
Andrews, Phillip J., Malone, Thomas B., Permenter, Kathryn E. and Eike, David R. (1988): Human Factors in the Space and Naval Warfare Command: Display System Standardization. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1090-1094.
“This paper describes the state and status of human factors within the Space and Naval Warfare Command (SPAWAR) by focusing on a major effort currently being pursued within SPAWAR, that of developing a standard workstation design concept for Navy applications. Human factors concerns were paramount in the assessment of requirements for a standardized workstation applicable to Navy-wide requirements. The major human factors concern was display usability.”
p. 1095-1099
Seamster, Thomas L., Snyder, Cathrine E., Terranova, Michele, Walker, William J. and Jones, D. Todd (1988): Human Factors in the Naval Air Systems Command: Computer Based Training. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1095-1099.
“Military standards applied to the private sector contracts have a substantial effect on the quality of Computer Based Training (CBT) systems procured for the Naval Air Systems Command. This study evaluated standards regulating the following areas in CBT development and procurement: interactive training systems, cognitive task analysis, and CBT hardware. The objective was to develop some high-level recommendations for evolving standards that will govern the next generation of CBT systems. One of the key recommendations is that there be an integration of the instructional systems development, the human factors engineering, and the software development standards. Recommendations were also made for task analysis and CBT hardware standards.”
p. 1100-1103
Malone, Thomas B. and Baker, Clifford C. (1988): Human Factors for Naval Systems: Enhanced HARDMAN. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1100-1103.
“The U.S. Navy is developing methods for integrating the disciplines concerned with personnel considerations into the weapon system acquisition process. This integration essentially involves human factors engineering, manpower, personnel and training, and life support engineering. Since the Navy already has the in system development, the process of integration of personnel issues will involve expanding the HARDMAN methods and data to include human factors engineering and life support engineering, resulting in the Enhanced HARDMAN process. This paper describes the objectives of Enhanced HARDMAN.”
p. 1104-1107
Malone, Thomas B., Baker, Clifford C. and Permenter, Kathryn E. (1988): Human Engineering in the Naval Sea Systems Command. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1104-1107.
“This paper describes the status of human engineering in the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA). NAVSEA has pursued four major thrusts in the development and application of human engineering technology: 1) human engineering research and development efforts, 2) human engineering front-end analysis, 3) human engineering audits as part of the Logistic Review Group (LRG) formal review of each program, and 4) ship and ship system engineering design and evaluation. This paper describes the progress that NAVSEA has made in each area.”
p. 1108-1112
Malone, Thomas B., Perse, Randy M., Heasly, Christopher C. and Kirkpatrick, Mark (1988): MANPRINT in the Program Initiation Phase of System Acquisition. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1108-1112.
“For the U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory (USAHEL), Carlow Associates recently completed development of the MANPRINT Integrated Decision/Engineering Aid (IDEA) for the Program Initiation Phase of system development. The IDEA includes a standard MANPRINT process describing activities, events and products for the Phase, a decision aid and analyst's workstation to support the Program Initiation Phase. Specific tools included in IDEA are: 1) an early comparability analysis tool (ECA) which provides baseline system lessons learned and high MANPRINT drivers, 2) an automated task analysis tool, 3) an allocation of function tool which enables and supports the determination of the required role of the soldier in the system, and 4) a workload and human performance simulation tool based on a task network and probabilistic process variables. Efforts involved in the MANPRINT process development addressed the integration of the activities and products of Human Factors Engineering (HFE), Manpower, Personnel and Training (MPT), and System Safety (SS) and Health Hazard Assessment (HHA) with the activities of the Material Acquisition Process (MAP), and identification of MANPRINT technology requirements to support the application of this process.”
p. 111-115
Kuperman, Gilbert G. and Wilson, Denise L. (1988): The Design of a Tactical Situation Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 111-115.
“This research and development effort was directed to the design and proof-of-concept demonstration of a dynamic tactical situation display (TSD) applicable to an advanced conceptual bomber crew system. The TSD provides a primary source of mission pacing and situational awareness information in the Strategic Avionics Battle-Management Evaluation of the Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. Four levels of situational awareness information are supported by SABER: (1) conventional paper products, (2) digitized (softcopy) versions of these hardcopy materials, (3) dynamic graphic representation of horizontal situation, and (4) horizontal situation display with digital terrain elevation and cultural feature underlay. The TSD described in this paper is being applied in the SABER simulation facility to support research directed to the optimization of the bomber crew system in the context of future mission requirements.”
p. 1113-1116
Heasly, Christopher C., Permenter, Kathryn E., Malone, Thomas B., Baker, Clifford C. and Lawrence, Louis G. (1988): Determination of Program Initiation Phase MANPRINT Requirements for the Lighter, Amphibious Heavy-Lift (LAMP-H). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1113-1116.
“The objective of this paper is to describe the approach utilized in the development of MANPRINT requirements for the Lighter, Amphibious-Heavy Lift (LAMP-H). LAMP-H is an air cushioned vehicle with a crew of six: a pilot, a navigator, and four stevedores who load and unload equipment from the vessel. The project was initiated during the program initiation phase of development. Several types of Air Cushion Vehicle (ACV) lighter craft were evaluated as baseline comparison systems for LAMP-H. The effort involved insuring compliance with human engineering design criteria and practice, incorporating lessons learned from analogous air-cushioned vehicles lighter craft, and addressing habitability, noise and other design issues affecting crew performance of tasks critical to the operation and maintenance of the LAMP-H. This paper details the analyses and techniques implemented in the early phases of the weapon system acquisition process for designing improved soldier-machine systems, as well as the products of the effort.”
p. 1117-1121
Stewart, John E. and Shvern, Uldi (1988): Application of HARDMAN II Methodology to the Army's Forward Area Air Defense (FAAD) System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1117-1121.
“HARDMAN II, an automated form of HARDMAN (Hardware vs. Manpower) analysis was applied to two new Army air defense systems for purposes of estimating maintainer workload and maintenance manpower requirements. Estimates showed a shortfall in official manpower allocations. Partially as a result of the HARDMAN II analyses, the Army decided to add more maintainers to the organization supporting both systems.”
p. 1122-1125
Fontenelle, Gail and Laughery, K. Ronald (1988): Workload Assessment Aid for Human Engineering Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1122-1125.
“The Workload Assessment Aid (WAA) is a software tool developed for the Army Research Institute as part of the MANPRINT effort. This software toolkit is specifically designed to predict operator workload at the earliest stages of design. It builds upon a task network simulation tool, Micro SAINT, by incorporating several other predictive workload techniques, in addition to several new dimensions. In it final form the tool will automatically make these task re-allocation recommendations based on workload profiles, personnel characteristics and display-control accessibility.”
p. 1126-1130
Wick, Daniel T. (1988): Integrating Human Engineering into the Design of the User Interface of a Large Scale System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1126-1130.
“This paper proposes allocating to user and developer organizations a portion of the human engineering required to design a user interface of a large scale system. The integration of the human engineering activities and the benefits realized by both organizations are discussed.”
p. 1131-1135
Biers, David W., Polzella, Donald J. and McInerney, Paul (1988): A Physical Measure of Subjective Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1131-1135.
“This investigation compared a physical measure of subjective workload (i.e. hand dynamometer) with traditional verbal scaling techniques. There were four subjective rating groups. One group employed the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) which required three separate ratings of time stress, mental effort, and psychological stress. A second group used verbal magnitude estimation (ME). Two physical measure groups estimated the magnitude of workload by squeezing a dynamometer in accordance with the magnitude of workload experienced. The DYNA1 group made one overall rating of workload similar to the ME group. The DYNA3 group made three workload ratings along the same dimensions as SWAT. All groups rated the workload associated with the performance of a continuous memory task under twelve levels of task difficulty. The physical measure of subjective workload most closely corresponded to actual task performance differences. The results suggest future development of a physical measure of subjective workload which can be utilized on a continuous basis, thus avoiding a major shortcoming of typical verbal measures of subjective workload.”
p. 1136-1139
Biers, David W. and McInerney, Paul (1988): An Alternative to Measuring Subjective Workload: Use of SWAT Without the Card Sort. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1136-1139.
“One major drawback in some applications of the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) is the time required to administer the card sort. There are alternative methods of forming a workload composite from the SWAT instrument (i.e. a simple sum of the three scales or composite derived from multivariate statistics) which do not require the card sort. The present study compared the sensitivity of these alternative SWAT composite measures with the typical SWAT conjoint scaling metric which requires the card sort. A two group study was conducted in which subjects engaged in a continuous recognition task under twelve levels of task difficulty. One group (Pre-Task), performed the card sort prior to engaging in the task whereas in the other group (Post-Task) completed the card sort subsequent to task performance. Results indicated that placement of the card sort did not affect the task ratings on the three dimensions of SWAT nor did it affect the relative sensitivity of the three workload composites. All three composite measures were found equally sensitive to the task demands. These results indicate that the SWAT instrument can be used to effectively measure workload without having to perform the card sort.”
p. 1140-1144
Mihaly, Tina (1988): Arousal Effects on Cognition: New Strategy which Isolates Movement and Heart Rate Effects Inherent in Physical Work. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1140-1144.
“Most experiments which have sought to determine the effects of arousal, exercise and/or physical work on psychomotor performance have been tainted by methodological problems. This paper presents a strategy that was developed to overcome one methodological shortcoming inherent in many such studies: the confounding of movement and heart rate. The technique involves administering mental tests during both movement and non-movement intervals, at pre-selected exercise states. Results of a validation experiment, in which 11 subjects performed numerous psychomotor tasks with and without movement at four work intensities (rest, 30% VO{sub:2}max, 60% VO{sub:2}max, and post-exercise) on two testing days indicate that this method was sufficiently sensitive to identify previously undetected effects, e.g., movement slows index finger tapping rate and may impair an individual's ability to stabilize speed-accuracy tradeoff strategies in serial choice reaction time tasks. Inverted-U effects were also found, replicating some previous investigations. The novel strategy detailed herein, which isolates the relative effects of movement and elevated heart rate, appears appropriate for use in studies aimed at quantifying the effects of exercise-induced arousal (via cycle ergometry) on mental performance before, during and after exercise. This work has implications for improving research methodologies and predicting which sorts of everyday speeded mental tasks will be affected when one is simultaneously engaged in physical work.”
p. 1145-1149
Byers, James C., Bittner, Alvah C., Hill, Susan G., Zaklad, Allen L. and Christ, Richard E. (1988): Workload Assessment of a Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1145-1149.
“Four empirical operator workload (OWL) scales were applied to ground control operations of the Aquila RPV during a recent field test: NASA TLX, SWAT, Overall Workload (OW), and the Modified Cooper-Harper (MCH). Seventeen sets of individual assessments of mission segments were made by the four members of each of four crews and one replacement crewman. "Jackknife factor analysis" revealed the presence of only a single factor and indicated that the mean factor loadings formed a consistent ordering (F(3,48) = 503.5, p<.00005): TLX (.910) > SWAT (.893) > OW (.869) > MCH (.833). ANOVAs also examined the effects of various variables on the composite workload factor scores; significant findings were found which reflected both upon the system and its test. These findings as well as informal lessons learned are discussed in the context of the development and validation of a methodology for assessing OWL.”
p. 1150-1153
Courtright, John F., Acton, William H., Frazier, Michael L. and Lane, J. Walter (1988): Effects of "Workarounds" on Perceptions of Problem Importance During Operational Test. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1150-1153.
“Workarounds are nonstandard procedures operators devise to compensate for system deficiencies. This study investigated the impact of workarounds on the perceived importance of problems discovered during operational test. Questionnaire data were collected for 73 reported design deficiencies to assess the existence and effectiveness of workarounds and the importance of the tasks they affected to mission success. Problems were viewed as more important when workarounds were ineffective or time consuming, and when the tasks affected were deemed critical to mission success. Implications for problem prioritization are discussed.”
p. 1154-1158
Weeden, Kristina S., Berry, Virginia M. and Baker, Herbert George (1988): Task Familiarity Effects on Job Sample Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1154-1158.
“As part of the Navy Job Performance Measurement Program, the technical proficiency of first-term radioman (RM) personnel was measured using a multimethod approach, the most significant component of which was a hands-on, or job sample test. Because the RM job included large number of personnel assigned to both ships and shore installations, the performance of these two groups on the hands-on test was compared and related to achievement on the other measures. The data were analyzed using MANOVA to test the overall difference between the groups across 12 hands-on task tests, showing that RMs assigned to ships performed significantly better than RMs assigned to shore installations. T-tests for each of the task tests showed that RMs assigned to ships performed significantly better than RMs assigned to shore installations on seven of the 12 task tests. Examinations of personnel background questionnaire information revealed a significant difference in the work experience between the groups. Possible causes of the assignment effects are discussed.”
p. 1159-1161
Sanquist, Thomas F. and McCallum, Marvin C. (1988): Application of a Cost-Benefit Model to the Evaluation of a Military Training Management Information System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1159-1161.
“A method to facilitate the comparative evaluation of automated systems based on quantitative predictions and measurements of system impacts is described. A model of the costs and benefits resulting from the automation of U.S. Army training management activities was developed on the basis of work function taxonomy measures. Data were collected from a sample of 66 personnel in the 9th Infantry Division to determine the time spent on different job tasks and work functions. The savings that could be obtained through automation were estimated by applying workload reduction factors to the task and work function times estimates. The estimates were extrapolated to the entire Army to determine the impact of a fully fielded system. The results indicate that the Army currently spends 8208 person-years on training management at a cost of $348 million. Automation could potentially reduce these cost to 5683 person-years at a cost of $227 million. The potential savings of $121 million represent resources that are currently consumed by inefficient procedures. This methodology is useful for generating quantitative predictions of automation impact for verification in comparative evaluations.”
p. 116-120
Smyth, Christopher C. and Dominessy, Mary E. (1988): Comparing Oculometer and Head-Fixed Reticle with Voice or Switch for Tactical Display Interaction. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 116-120.
“An experiment with 15 U.S. Army enlisted military subjects was conducted to compare the performance of an oculometer, head-fixed reticle, and touch panel for data entry on a generic tactical air combat display. The subjects used voice or switch to designate data items on the display that were selected with the oculometer or fixed reticle. The touch panel was included as a standard data entry device. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in performance for the five configurations at the .0001 level. The reticle/switch, oculometer/switch, and touch panel are significantly faster than the reticle/voice, which in turn is significantly faster than the oculometer/voice. The reticle methods are faster than the oculometer methods. The switch action is faster than voice entry. The touch panel is twice as accurate as the other methods, all of which have about the same spatial accuracy whether oculometer or reticle, voice or switch. However, the oculometer/voice has nearly twice as many selection errors as the other methods.”
p. 1162-1165
Simon, Robert, Schmidt, Martha A. and Courville, Nancy (1988): Test and Evaluation of an Air Force Non-Developmental Item (NDI) Computer System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1162-1165.
“The Air Force is fielding a computer-based command and control system to support fighter base mission requirements. The acquisition strategy for this system was to purchase it as a Non-Developmental Item (NDI). Since the hardware and software were in the Air Force inventory, it was determined that system development was not necessary. Initial implementation and installation occurred without system-level specifications or performance requirements. This paper presents the results of a Human Factors Engineering evaluation of the system from three perspectives: an Expert's view, a Military Standard view, and a User's view. Two primary lessons resulted from the evaluation: First, the multi-perspective evaluation technique is valuable and highly recommended for use in other HFE evaluations. Second, the purchase of NDI or commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) items should be viewed from the systems perspective, i.e., even though subsystems may be NDI, the system may be developmental.”
p. 1166-1168
Babbitt, Bettina A., Krohn, Gregory S., Seven, Sally A., Spiegel, Douglas K., Nystrom, Charles O., Meister, David and Muckler, Frederick A. (1988): Innovative Approaches to Human Factors in Operational Test and Evaluation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1166-1168.
“Each year, it would appear that more and more human factors specialists participate in and support system operation test and evaluation (OT&E). Collecting human factors data in OT&E is particularly exciting since this is often the first opportunity to see how the system works under conditions that approximate the eventual operational environment. It is also a time to see how well the human operator/maintainer can perform within the system, what human factors deficiencies exist, and how well the human-machine interface works to create effective system performance.”
p. 1169-1173
Meister, David (1988): Operational Reality and Human Factors Measurement. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1169-1173.
“This paper attempts to develop a theoretical foundation specifically for human factors measurement. The notion is advanced that reality for the discipline is the operational system. This has significant implications for human factors research.”
p. 1174-1178
Beaudet, Douglas B. and Williges, Robert C. (1988): The Role of Screening Studies in Sequential Research Designs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1174-1178.
“A screening study is an economical method for analyzing a large number of independent variables using a relatively small number of data points. The role of screening studies in sequential designs is discussed and demonstrated. The methodology for selecting variables, choosing an experimental design, and collecting data is presented by reviewing the results of a recent study. The screening study was conducted using a Hadamard matrix to investigate the effects of 16 variables on a telephone information system which uses synthetic speech as the display modality. Only 32 data points were required to evaluate 16 factors in the screening study. The results of this study are discussed in terms of strategies to conduct efficient sequential research in human factors.”
p. 1179-1182
Merkle, P. Jay, Beaudet, Douglas B., Williges, Robert C., Herlong, David W. and Williges, Beverly H. (1988): A Systematic Method for the Selection of Independent Variables in the Investigation of Complex Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1179-1182.
“This paper describes a systematic methodology for selecting independent variables to be considered in large-scale research problems. Five specific procedures including brainstorming, prototype interface representation, feasibility/relevance analyses, structured literature reviews, and user subjective ratings are evaluated and incorporated into an integrated strategy. This methodology is demonstrated in the context of designing the user interface for a telephone-based information inquiry system. The procedure was successful in reducing an initial set of 95 independent variables to a subset of 19 factors that warrant subsequent detailed analysis. These results are discussed in terms of a comprehensive sequential research methodology useful for investigating human factors problems.”
p. 1183-1187
Kreifeldt, J. G., Levine, S. H. and Chuang, M. C. (1988): Weber's Ratio, Multidimensional Scaling and Incomplete Data Sets: New Light on an Old Problem. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1183-1187.
“Sensory modalities exhibit a characteristic known as Weber's ratio which remarks that when two stimuli are compared for a difference: (1) there is some minimal nonzero difference which can be differentiated and (2) this minimal difference is a nearly constant proportion of the magnitude of the stimuli. Both of these would, in a typical measurement context, appear to be system defects. We have found through simulation explorations that in fact these are apparently the characteristics required by a system designed to extract an adequate amount of information for an incomplete observation data set according to a new approach to measurement.”
p. 1188-1190
Kvalseth, Tarald O. (1988): Measuring Association for Nominal Data: Alternative Derivation and Interpretation of Lambda. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1188-1190.
“Using the deviation-from-the-mode index of variation for categorical data, a measure of associate for numerical variables is derived. This measure (R{squared}) gives exactly the same numerical results as the popular lambda measure, but their derivations and operational interpretations differ. While lambda is based on a proportional-reduction-in-error logic, R{squared} is based on a proportional-reduction-in-variation logic analogous to the coefficient of determination for quantitative variables. Both asymmetric and symmetric R{squared} are considered.”
p. 1191-1195
Shontz, William D. (1988): An Innovative Nonparametric Measure of Response Bias. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1191-1195.
“A nonparametric technique for assessing the effects of response bias within the Signal Detection Theory paradigm was developed. The technique involves modification of the 2 x n table produced when rating scale data are collected under the SDT paradigm. A X{squared} value computed from the modified table is used as the unit of analysis in statistical analyses. This new measure of response bias has been shown to be independent of several nonparametric measures of sensitivity when tested under three different experimental designs.”
p. 1196-1197
Boycan, G. Gary, Sicilia, G. Thomas, Duncan, Steve, Henris, Jim, Perez, Ray S., Park, Ok-Choon and Harris, James (1988): Military Training Data Bases. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1196-1197.
“The military is conducting research on data bases to improve training, and is establishing data bases to support operational training, research and development in training issues, and the dissemination of information concerning training. This panel presents some examples of the developmental issues in designing and establishing some data bases, and information on how to use extant data bases. Some of the data bases are interservice, such as the ones to be described by panelists from the Training Performance and Data Center (TPDC). Other focus on Army training issues and data.”
p. 1198-1201
Sicilia, G. Thomas (1988): Developing a Training Data Architecture that Ties It Altogether. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1198-1201.
“Everyone involved in quantifying the human part of the defense equation has long been frustrated by lack of consistent, "reproducible" and comprehensive data. This void is especially evident in the training and performance data area. The Defense Training and Performance Data Center (TPDC) was established to help redress this problem.”
p. 1202-1206
Duncan, C. Steven and Greenston, Peter M. (1988): Occupation Data Base Planning and Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1202-1206.
“The Occupation Data Base under development at TPDC consists of three files. The first file describes military occupations, providing information about the attributes of the occupation. It addresses the question: what does the occupation look like? The second file describes the occupations from a "demographic" perspective, or more simply put, answers statistical profile (current and historical) of the characteristics, experience, and behavior of the people serving in each military occupation. The third file provides a data file on training programs, resources, methods and media as these elements relate to military occupations. All occupations within the enlisted, warrant officer, and officer communities are covered in each service, both active and reserve components. These three files are being built from current and historical data and will be updated regularly, thereby providing a comparative perspective with which senior service planners can make informed decisions on defense training issues.”
p. 1207-1211
Thomas, Gary S. and Miller, David C. (1988): Development of an Air Combat Performance Measure. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1207-1211.
“The purpose of this research was to formulate a unitary measure of performance of simulated one-versus-one, within visual range, air-to-air combat. The measure will serve as a criterion for the development and validation of specific measures of ACM skill that can be used to provide diagnostic performance feedback to pilots. Two experiments were conducted in which fighter pilots served as judges and rank-ordered, from most to least desirable, hypothetical ACM engagement outcomes. Outcome variables included (1) whether or not the hypothetical pilot achieved a "kill", (2) whether or not he survived the mission, (3) the percent of time the pilot was in an offensive, defensive, or neutral posture, (4) length of engagement, and (5) posture at the beginning and end of the engagement (offensive, defensive, or neutral). In order to determine inter-rater agreement among judges in Experiment I, their rankings were correlated. Correlations ranged from .93 to .99. Pilots' rankings of engagement outcomes were subjected to linear regression analyses to derive equations that could be used as a unitary measure of ACM success. The regression equation in Experiment I accounted for 95% of the variance in rankings, and the composite regression model calculated in Experiment II accounted for more than 70% for the variance.”
p. 121-125
Rauch, Stephen (1988): Determination of a Gain-Function Relating Control Force to Cursor Velocity. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 121-125.
“F-14D fighter pilots will have the capability to use cursor control to designate symbols and pushbutton legends on multifunction displays (MFD). Since operators often will be required to slew and designate a target symbol or pushbutton legend in diverse environments, it is important to determine a control system gain, the relationship between response magnitude (in this case, force) and amount of cursor movement or velocity, that will enhance performance during slewing/designate tasks. The purpose of this study was to evaluate six different gain-functions analyzing speed, accuracy, and subjective comments, to determine an optimal gain-function relating control force to cursor velocity. Trend indicated that Gain-function 1, the gain-function with the lowest mean pixel error and fastest mean acquisition time, would be the best gain-function to use in the F-14D aircraft.”
p. 1212-1216
Lee, C. H., Biegel, J. E. and Dixon, C. M. (1988): Student Performance Evaluation for a Simulation Based Intelligent Expert Tutoring System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1212-1216.
“Intelligent tutoring systems offer an exciting new way to train people in areas of complex domains. A simulation-based training system provides the student with the opportunity to manipulate a system without the consequences of real life mistakes. The intelligence required in the tutoring system is focused on the tutor's ability to teach the student efficient, strategic responses. This tutoring demands that the tutor is aware of the student's current ability, specific fault areas, and preferred method of tutoring. Instructional decisions are made by assessing the student's performance. The utility of an intelligent tutoring system depends on its capacity to evaluate the student's performance. Performance assessment then has significant impact on the employment of such a system. The parameters used for performance assessment of a complex task depend on the objective of the tutoring system. We present a description of a generic intelligent tutoring system which will remove the human instruct or from the training loop.”
p. 1217-1221
Connelly, Edward (1988): Performance Based Design of Training Programs with Moment to Moment Performance Measures. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1217-1221.
“Task performance can directly impact on unit/system effectiveness and also indirectly by limiting the performance of other tasks. When assessing the impact of candidate systems designs, training programs, changes in doctrine, MOS staffing, etc., the total impact of task performance must be known. A method for calculating the total impact i.e., both direct and indirect effects, is described here in terms of the unit/system/task relationship.”
p. 1222-1226
Martin, J. I., Breidenbach, S. T. and Ciavarelli, A. P. (1988): Development of a Prototype Performance Measurement System for Strike Warfare Training Assessment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1222-1226.
“This paper describes methods for developing automated performance measurement systems used with training ranges and simulators. A prototype automated measurement system designed to assess aircrew performance during strike warfare training is presented as an application of this methodology. Methods are also presented for displaying information which is useful in assessing student progress and for diagnosing training results.”
p. 1227-1231
Fisk, Arthur D. and Eggemeier, F. Thomas (1988): Application of Automatic/Controlled Processing Theory to Training Tactical Command and Control Skills: 1. Background and Task Analytic Methodology. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1227-1231.
“In this paper we briefly highlight relevant laboratory research that provided the theoretical and empirical underpinnings for the development of a task-analytic training methodology. The actual task-analytic methodology, developed to decompose tasks performed to support tactical command and control (C{squared}), air-weapons controller missions, is briefly discussed. The present paper provides the necessary background for the actual application of the methodology. The details of the direct application are presented in a comparison paper by Eggemeier, Fisk, Robbins, and Lawless (1988).”
p. 1232-1236
Eggemeier, F. Thomas, Fisk, Arthur D., Robbins, Richard J. and Lawless, Michael T. (1988): Application of Automatic/Controlled Processing Theory to Training Tactical Command and Control Skills: II. Evaluation of a Task Analytic Methodology. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1232-1236.
“Automatic/controlled processing theory maintains that the consistent components of complex skills improve most substantially with training, and that part-task training (PTT) programs should therefore focus on the consistent elements of skilled performance. As an initial step in applying automatic processing principles to PTT, Fisk and Eggemeier (1988) developed a task analytic methodology to identify the consistent components of complex skills. This paper describes the application of the methodology to operator skills required in a complex tactical command and control (C{squared}) system. The results indicate that the methodology can be used to identify a variety of consistent components of complex performance. Possible applications of PTT and issues for future training research are discussed.”
p. 1237-1240
Kincaid, J. Peter, Braby, Richard, Mears, John E. and Babu, A. J. G. (1988): Computer-Based Job Aids which Adapt to Technician's Skill Level. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1237-1240.
“This paper describes current developments in automating the processes to author technical information (TI) and deliver it using microcomputers. It describes desirable characteristics which support the presentation of TI for technicians varying in skill levels. Addressed are human factors issues relating to information access, user acceptance, and display formats. Programming is being done in Smalltalk/V, an object oriented language, on a Zenith 248 computer, which is compatible with the IBM PC/AT. The project emphasizes low cost authoring and delivery of information which traditionally has been contained in paper technical manuals. Our intent is to support the Department of Defense initiative to shift paper to paperless technical manuals.”
p. 1241-1245
Ackerman, Phillip L. and Kanfer, Ruth (1988): Declarative and Procedural Knowledge in Skill Acquisition: An Aptitude-Treatment Interaction Framework for Training. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1241-1245.
“This paper focuses on the interactions among four constructs during skill acquisition: (1) the dynamic changes in attentional demands of the task to be acquired, (2) individual differences in cognitive and intellectual abilities, (3) conative (motivational), metacognitive process involved in changes of attentional focus, and (4) knowledge structures acquired through part-task training. An attentional model is reviewed that describes how these variables interact during three phases of skill acquisition (i.e., during declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation, and at the level of proceduralized knowledge). Empirical demonstration of the framework is provided in the context of complex skill acquisition. Supportive results from a series of empirical studies are reviewed.”
p. 1246-1250
Singer, Michael J., Mumaw, Randall J. and Gilligan, Elizabeth L. (1988): The Formative Evaluation of a Decision Support System for Designing Training Devices. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1246-1250.
“Formative evaluation in the broadest sense refers to the measurement of some system in order to make direct and immediate differences in the procedures, mechanisms, and goals of that system during development. ?The objective of this formative evaluation is to address three areas: 1) increase our understanding of how the targeted users make decisions, 2) train the user about how the system makes decisions and present information, and 3) develop information about interface and modeling changes needed in the system. What is needed in the design of decision process, and how the decisions actually could be effectively made. Both of these issues must be addressed before the user will accept and use the decision aid. The system also needs to be able to accept and use the information that the user considers necessary, as well as to present both recommendations and supporting information in acceptable formats. We have applied a structured interview within our formative evaluation process as a basis for integrating the user in the develop, revise, and deliver cycle. The structured interview vs conducted on-line, demonstrating what the system does while explanations of how it works are provided. The responses have provided information about whether the user thinks the system addresses the correct issues, the users agreement with the system analyses, and a report of the users decision processes. By including the user in the review of the developing system, the design of the prototype more accurately reflects the user's decision processes, as well as providing more usable output. This study will provide some insight about one method for evaluating decision aids early in the development process.”
p. 1251-1255
Potempa, Kenneth W. and Gentner, Frank C. (1988): Manpower, Personnel, Training and Safety in Air Force Weapon Systems Acquisition. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1251-1255.
“Manpower, personnel, training and safety (MPTS) analysis is currently inconsistent and incomplete in its application to Air Force acquisitions. While many problems are managerial, MPTS analysis also suffers from a lack of adequate tools and data bases to analyze weapon system design, project MPTS requirements and suggest trade-offs. These problems are particularly acute in the early phases of the weapon system acquisition process (WSAP), making it difficult to influence design during this critical period. To improve MPTS analysis, a study is being conducted by the Air Force to define a comprehensive and integrated MPTS analytic system for use in the WSAP. The study is identifying what MPTS decisions need to be made in the WSAP, when they need to be made, and how they are interrelated. Current capabilities are then being determined by analyzing the tools and data bases available to support each MPTS decision. The analysis will identify needed improvements to existing tools and data bases and whether new one need to be developed. This paper discusses the requirement for an improved MPTS systems and then describes a variety of managerial and technical initiatives being undertaken to satisfy the requirement. The last section identifies the desired characteristics of an effective MPTS system.”
p. 1256-1260
Evans, Debra C. (1988): Developing Embedded Training (ET) Design and Integration Concepts for All Source Analysis System/Enemy Situation Correlation Element (ASAS/ENSCE). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1256-1260.
“This paper describes the lessons learned from applying embedded training guidelines currently under development to a testbed system. The testbed system was the All Source Analysis System/Enemy Situation Correlation Element (ASAS/ENSCE). The major results of this effort was the modification of the ET guidelines to better support embedded training development.”
p. 126-129
Allen, Charles P. (1988): Variable Magnification Considerations for Airborne, Moving Map Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 126-129.
“Color moving-map displays are increasingly being recommended for inclusion in the crewstations of modern aircraft. Research evaluates display magnification requirements for color moving-map display systems for two map scale uses, three map scales and two lighting conditions. Results show significant differences in magnification requirements for different map uses, map scales and lighting conditions. Results suggest the need for new guidelines.”
p. 1261-1265
Sheppard, Daniel J., Jones, Sherrie A., Westra, Daniel P. and Madden, Joyce J. (1988): Simulator Evaluation of Instructional and Design Features for Training Helicopter Shipboard Landing. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1261-1265.
“The effects of four instructional issues and one simulator design feature for training helicopter shipboard landing on small ships were tested in the Vertical Take-off and Landing Simulator (VTOL) at the Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS), Naval Training Systems Center. They were: (1) field of view (VTRS versus a test field of view), (2) task chaining (segmented backward chaining versus whole task training), (3) augmented cueing (augmented cueing versus no augmented cueing), (4) length of training (18, 27, and 36 trials), and (5) the timing of seastate introduction (early versus late). The experiment utilized an in-simulator transfer-of-training paradigm in which pilots who were not proficient in the helicopter shipboard landing task were trained under one of several experimental conditions, then tested on the transfer condition (that represented maximum realism) in the simulator. Thirty-two pilots each completed a total of 54 trials (36 training, 18 transfer). Pilots were tested in the transfer condition (six trials) after their 18th, 27th, and 36th training trial. Of the experimental instructional issues, task chaining had the largest effect, with better performance in all segments of the task for pilots who were trained with the backward-chaining sequence, than for pilots who received whole task training. Augmented cueing did not yield the transfer performance anticipated. Seastate introduction had no effect on performance. Field of view had some marginal effects on vertical performance in the hover, with better performance for pilots who were trained with the combination VTRS field-of-view and backward-chaining. Results suggest a diminished rate of learning after 33 simulator trials (includes 27 training trials and six transfer trials of the first probe).”
p. 1266-1270
Gopher, Daniel, Weil, Maya, Bareket, Tal and Caspi, Sigal (1988): Fidelity of Task Structure as a Guiding Principle in the Development of Skill Trainers Based Upon Complex Computer Games. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1266-1270.
“Fidelity of task structure is proposed to replace physical fidelity, as a cost effective guiding principle in the development of trainers for complex tasks. The paper describes a research project in which a complex computer game was designed to mimic the requirements of flight skill. It was then employed as part trainer within an actual flight training program. The game was mainly directed to teach subjects strategies of attention control and efficient allocation of processing resources. It was found to improve trainees performance in flight. The paper discusses the theoretical roots of the proposed approach and some results of its application in an actual training environment.”
p. 1271-1275
Schumacher, Robert M. and Gentner, Dedre (1988): Remembering Causal Systems: Effects of Systematicity and Surface Similarity in Delayed Transfer. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1271-1275.
“Transfer between functionally isomorphic devices can be viewed as a kind of analogical mapping. In this research subjects learned to operate a computer-simulated device and then transferred to a functionally-equivalent device, either immediately or after a delay of one week. Two factors were varied: the systematicity, or causal coherence, of the original device mode; and the transparency, or degree of surface similarity between corresponding components in the two devices. The results showed effects of delay, systematicity and transparency. Transfer performance was better in the immediate than in the delayed condition. Both systematicity and transparency improved performance in both immediate and delayed conditions.”
p. 1276-1279
Damos, Diane L. (1988): Determining Transfer of Training Using Curve Fitting. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1276-1279.
“The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the measurement of learning and transfer using a curve-fitting technique discussed in a 1985 Human Factors article by Spears. The data were collected during an experiment that determined if rotation skills could become automated with practice and if the skills could transfer between stimuli. The dependent variables of interest were the slope and intercept of the regression equation relating correct reaction time and degrees of rotation. Curve fitting was accomplished using a common statistical package, BMDP, and an IBM-XT. The curve-fitting technique showed large initial transfer of training on several variables that did not affect the asymptotic level of performance. In contrast standard transfer of training calculations indicated small positive transfer.”
p. 1280-1284
Grose, Eric M. and Damos, Diane L. (1988): Automaticity and the Transfer of Mental Rotation Skills. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1280-1284.
“Two experiments are presented that examine automaticity and transfer of mental rotation skills. The data from these experiments were analyzed using a curve fitting technique that represents a departure from traditional methods used to analyze transfer. The first experiment demonstrated significant positive transfer from one letter stimulus to another. The second experiment examined the transfer of rotation skills from a letter to an abstract shape. Both experiments indicated mental rotation skills may become automatic with practice.”
p. 1285-1288
Bogner, M. Sue and Evans, Susan M. (1988): Effects of Modes of Computer-Based Training on Learning and Retention. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1285-1288.
“The paper describes an investigation of the effects of computer-based training (CBT) delivery methods on learning and retention in target recognition and identification tasks. Two training methods (drill and practice, and branching computer aided instructions) were administered to subjects at two locations. Measures of cognitive complexity also were obtained on each subject and compared against test scores. Results confirmed that learning did occur with both CBT methods. Results also suggest that training design is not straightforward, and must consider a number of student and training site factors as well as the topic to be trained. Trends, while not highly significant, do suggest directions for further research.”
p. 1289-1293
Moore, Jana L. and Gordon, Sallie E. (1988): Conceptual Graphs as Instructional Tools. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1289-1293.
“Conceptual graphs are a method of diagraming knowledge structures. They are valuable in a variety of applications including design of research. One problem has been the identification of methods for eliciting or measuring the "internal" knowledge structures to develop conceptual graphs. Several methods of mapping conceptual graphs have been used in various research domains (e.g., free recall, sorting, ordering, etc.). Most of these traditional methods suffer from serious drawbacks. To overcome these problems, a question probe method has been adapted from work done in the area of prose comprehension. The question probe technique is a method for systematically developing a set of "test questions". The method allows for the direct development of conceptual graphs and quantitative comparison of the graphs. The question probe technique has been successfully used to systematically develop instructional materials, evaluate/diagnose student understanding of course material, evaluate alternative instructional methods, and assess the relationship between instruction and problem solving performance.”
p. 1294-1298
Vercruyssen, Max, Christina, Robert W., Muller, Ellen and Grose, Eric M. (1988): Relationship of Strength and Precision in Shooting Activities. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1294-1298.
“Reported is an experiment which was designed to (1) test the strength-precision relationship of grip and shoulder strength with competitive pistol shooting scores using a nationally ranked collegiate pistol team and (2) determine the effects of a very brief, specifically focused, intense grip and shoulder strength training program (10 min, 3 times per week for 8 weeks) on strength and shooting performance. All members of the Pennsylvania State University Navy ROTC Pistol Team (n=12) were divided into two matched groups according to pre-test shooting scores. Both groups received identical shooting instruction and practice, but the training group participated in an eight-week strength development program while the control group did not. Maximum isometric strength (peak and 4-sec average force) measures were obtained from electronic output of a hand dynamometer and strain gauge (deltoid contraction from a lateral horizontal shooting position against an arm cuff). Shooting scores (slow fire, timed fire, rapid fire, and total) were used as performance measures.”
p. 1299-1303
Kleiss, James A., Curry, David G. and Hubbard, David C. (1988): Effect of Three-Dimensional Object Type and Density in Simulated Low-Level Flight. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1299-1303.
“Three-dimensional objects placed on simulated terrain surfaces are particularly effective as cues for altitude in simulated low-level flight. To conserve the limited edge processing capacity of computer image generators (CIGs), objects have typically been simple in shape and therefore fairly abstract in appearance. The present investigation sought to determine whether the apparent size of more detailed and familiar appearing objects (e.g., trees and bushes) serves as an additional cue for altitude in simulated low-level flight. Results showed no differences in performance between abstract objects and familiar objects. However, performance did improve with increases in object density, at least for some performance measures. These results suggest that CIG processing capacity may be most effectively utilized by increasing object density rather than individual object detail.”
p. 130-134
Aretz, Anthony J. (1988): A Model of Electronic Map Interpretation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 130-134.
“This paper describes an experiment that provides data for the development of a cognitive model of pilot flight navigation. The model views navigation as a process involving the alignment of mental images with the perceptual view out of the cockpit. The data support a three stage model: 1) the perceptual encoding of the map display, 2) mental rotation of the mental image, and 3) comparison of the image to the environment. The variables that significantly influence the processes embodies in the model in decreasing importance are: speed of processing, display sequencing, map complexity, and rotation angle of the map. The model can be used as a preliminary computational tool in predicting the navigational component of pilot situational awareness.”
p. 1304
Richards, Robert E. (1988): Making Computer Conferencing Work for Army Training: From Lessons Learned to Testbed Development. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 1304.
“This symposium looks at the process of working through the countless conceptual and methodological issues necessary to get a new technology applied to a new setting. The papers describe the issues faced and the solutions adopted. The issues relate to applying computer conferencing to Army training but are illustrative of real-world, down-to-earth applied research. The presenters are all members of a project team that has been working with computer conferencing for over two years, full time. An overview paper points out the dangers of not questioning assumptions made early in one's learning about a new domain and the somewhat overlooked value of evaluation in the initial stages of developing a program for testing. The second paper will review the complex set of decisions made in designing, developing, and implementing a full-blown electronic classroom for the Army. The third paper describes the software that was created to meet the needs of this environment. User feedback and extensive design work went into making an intuitively simple yet surprisingly powerful interface. The fourth paper discusses the topics covered and methods used to train Army instructors for teaching in the Computer Mediated Classroom.”
p. 1305-1306
Richards, Robert E. (1988): Breaking Out of Conceptual/Methodological Traps: A Case Study from Research on the Computer Mediated Classroom. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1305-1306.
“This paper describes several lessons learned in the process of getting Computer Conferencing to work for Army Training. One methodological lesson was to better assess the maturity of the phenomenon to be studied and utilize formative evaluation rather than experimentation for immature areas of study. Another lesson was to not over-borrow from prevailing conceptual frameworks as they may be inappropriate for a new context. Some specifics, in case study form, are given to illustrate these lessons learned.”
p. 1307-1308
Hahn, Heidi Ann (1988): Course Development for the Computer Mediated Classroom. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1307-1308.
“This paper discusses considerations for designing instructional materials for the computer mediated classroom. Specifically, the topics of group versus individual instruction, information processing, media/method tradeoffs, and associated costs were addressed.”
p. 1309-1313
Kaplan, Bruce L. and Jones, Mark K. (1988): Instructor Training for the Computer Mediated Classroom. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1309-1313.
“This paper explores the issues and dilemmas faced in designing and delivering instructor training for Army engineers to teach in a computer mediated classroom. It presents an account of the design and development and implementation processes, including the evaluation methodology and lessons. Differences between the roles of instructional staff in the computer conference and traditional school environment are also discussed.”
p. 1314-1315
Hallbert, Bruce P. (1988): A User Interface for Computer Mediated Conferencing: Bridging the Gap between Needs and Expectations. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1314-1315.
“As part of a computer mediated conferencing research project, a user interface was developed for the software database management programs. A process of identifying an appropriate interface is discussed as well as the factors which the researchers used to develop the interface. User needs and expectations are identified as the major factors for interface design, and methods of evaluating needs and expectations are discussed. Limitations of designing the interface to suit the particular computer conferencing course are also presented.”
p. 1316-1319
Workman, Daniel and Fisher, Donald L. (1988): A Threshold Model of Visual Search. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1316-1319.
“A new model of visual search is proposed. It is suggested that in searching for a target among distractors, there is some threshold level of similarity between the target and the distractors. When the similarity of the target to a given distractor is below this threshold the distractor can be quickly rejected. When the distractor is above the threshold level of similarity it will take additional time to reject the distractor. Several models of visual search, including threshold and non-threshold models, are simulated on a computer and compared to the results obtained by Geiselman, Landee & Christen (1982) in a visual search task. A threshold search model in which the time to reject distractors over the similarity threshold is a function of the increment above the threshold (where similarity is defined as proposed in Workman & Fisher, 1987), is shown to provide the best fit to the data. Implications for the selection of symbols for graphic displays are briefly discussed.”
p. 1320-1323
Tanner, Nancy S. and Fisher, Donald L. (1988): A Visual Search Model for Selection of Graphic Symbols. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1320-1323.
“Ideally one would like to select symbols for visual displays which can quickly be identified. This paper presents a model which can help select representation of an object which will speed search the most (i.e., the optimal representation) when there are several equally meaningful representations available.”
p. 1324-1328
Doll, Theodore J., Cathcart, J. Michael and Schmieder, David E. (1988): Infrared Target Detection in Structured Urban Scenes. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1324-1328.
“An experiment was conducted to measure observers' performance in detecting military targets in structured scenes with a high density of man-made features, i.e., "urban clutter". The scenes were simulations of those produced by an infrared (IR) imaging system in air-to-ground situations. Scenes were generated with various signal-to-clutter ratios (SCR's), and were filtered to produce various levels of resolution. Detection performance was measured using a rating-scale detection task. Sensitivity (d') increased with resolution, but varied little with SCR. Contrary to expectation, detection performance for a given level of resolution and SCR was better in the present urban scenes than in rural scenes used in a previous study. The findings help define requirements for the design and employment of IR imaging systems, and also suggest directions for future research directed at better understanding target detection processes in structured backgrounds.”
p. 1329-1333
Wilson, Denise L., Kuperman, Gilbert G., Ramsey, Eric G. and Perez, William A. (1988): A Signal Detection Paradigm for Color Display Specification. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1329-1333.
“The objective of this research was to demonstrate the validity of signal detection theory to the assessment (visual discrimination) of displayed color symbology. The area of application of the research results is in the design specification of color coded symbology to be overlayed on moving map, situational awareness displays. A symbol detection experiment was designed to determine how far apart, in CIE/UCS color space, symbol and background color must be in order for observers to detect that a symbol is present against the background. Six trained observers viewed a number of systematically varied symbol/background color combinations and were required to make one of six responses along a continuum from "symbol definitely present" to "symbol definitely not present". The analyses of the d' and Beta signal detection measures yielded different patterns of results, suggesting that this paradigm was successful in separating the cognitive and sensory/perceptual factors associated with color-on-color target detection. In addition, the shape of the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves indicated that the assumptions underlying the signal detection paradigm were met.”
p. 1334
Sanderson, Penelope (1988): Visual Display Design: Theory and Practice. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 1334.
“This symposium will focus on the theory and practice of dynamic visual display design. The motivation behind it is that the sophistication of graphics hardware and software has not been matched by sophistication in the way visual information is presented, particularly in dynamic systems. The symposium participants -- Wickens, Andre, Buttigieg, Sanderson, Flach, Carswell, Woods and Elias -- will focus on how appropriate decisions are made about "what" to display, and how current theories of perception might provide practical principles on "how" to display it. They provide examples of how this has been achieved in a variety of domains. The problem of "what" to display is addressed by Woods and Elias in their paper on Significance Message Systems for continuous process environments. They describe and AI-based system that embodies rules for deciding what to display, given the current system context and given the types of decisions that are important in that context. This is termed the "significance of data" problem. Flach looks at the issue of what to display from an ecological perspective, arguing that task variables should be represented with respect to "critical action boundaries", or operating constraint of the system. Since dynamic systems must be described at various levels of abstraction to be properly understood, information from all levels should be displayed. The papers by Flach and by Buttigieg, Sanderson and Flach make the point that goal-relevant task invariants are what should be displayed, and provide examples of how the might be identified. The problem of how to display the chosen data requires solving a difficult mapping problem: making the abstract concrete. Wickens and Andre present the "compatibility of proximity" principle, which proposes that when a task requires information to be integrated, an object display will support best performance, but when focused attention is required to one aspect of the display, a non-object display such as a bar graph will do better. They show that "homogeneous" object dimensions (e.g. height and width of a rectangle) can combine to produce "emergent features", or new properties that are highly perceptually salient (rectangle area). The symposium participants agree that emergent features are a driving force behind display advantages. Flach and Buttigieg et al. argue that interactions among task variables should be represented as interactions in the visual representation: goal-relevant task invariants should be mapped into emergent properties or configural features of a display. Buttigieg et al. show that if a non-object display has goal-relevant information coded in a strong emergent feature, the non-object can actually support better performance on a task requiring integration of information than an object display. Many of the technical terms being used by symposium members originated in studies of visual attention, where they have precise operational definitions and existence criteria. Carswell has compared such definitions and criteria for "integrality", "configurality", etc. with current usage and finds frequent misuse of the terms. In a study of 13 bivariate graphs, she shows that true display integrality is hard to find and much of what researchers examine meet criteria for configurality only. Both she and Wickens and Andre find that the more configural they become. Configural dimensions interact perceptually to produce the emergent features that can be exploited by designers. The area of visual display design is benefitting from the resurrection of old theories and the development of new theories. Motivations for research in this area tend to be divided between settling theoretical issues and finding superior solutions for specific applications. The former provides a basis for generalization, but may lead to sterile parametric manipulations with little to help practitioners. The latter may lead to "straw man" display comparisons that are uninformative about the real cause of performance improvements. Wickens and Andre argue that the best approach is to pursue any research in this area with a real system in mind. Then theoretical issues might be settled in contexts that are useful to designers of visual displays. If practical visual display design is to have a sound basis, then researchers will have to translate theories into guidelines for design decisions, but equally designers will need to understand something of the theoretical and empirical foundations of these guidelines to use them effectively. We hope to promote such a dialectic in this symposium.”
p. 1335-1339
Wickens, Christopher D. and Andre, Anthony D. (1988): Proximity Compatibility and the Object Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1335-1339.
“Object displays have been proposed as an efficient, economical means for presenting multiple sources of information that must be integrated. In this paper, we outline the fundamental theoretical and applied principles that have been cited to justify object display advantages, and suggest some modifications to those principles. In particular, we describe the compatibility of proximity principle which asserts that object displays will facilitate information integration, but disrupt focused attention on the individual dimensions of the object. We then discriminate between homogeneous and heterogeneous feature objects, suggesting that only the former will produce emergent features that can facilitate information integration. Finally, we describe an experiment in which the object display is designed to incorporate an emergent feature that will support the perception of aircraft stall conditions. Evaluation of the display reveals superior integration performance to a separate bar graph display, but degraded focused attention performance, thus illustrating the principle of proximity of compatibility.”
p. 1340-1344
Buttigieg, Mary Anne, Sanderson, Penelope and Flach, John (1988): Object vs Separate Displays for Process Failure Detection: The Emergent Features Approach. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1340-1344.
“Two studies are described that compare a "compatibility of proximity" approach to display design with an emergent features approach. Results suggest that tasks requiring integration are not necessarily better supported by an integral or object display than a separated display. A bar graph with a strong emergent feature mapped onto a goal-relevant task invariant supported better integrated task performance than a triangle display that in previous research had shown superiority when compared with weaker bar graph displays. Further research in progress is outlined. Our findings suggest that an emergent features approach to display design might be a more encompassing approach than one based solely on compatibility of proximity.”
p. 1345-1349
Carswell, C. Melody (1988): Integral, Configural, and Unitary Graphs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1345-1349.
“Thirteen graphical formats, each designed to display two variables, were subjected to performance-based diagnostics of integrality, configurality, and perceptual unity. None of the graphs appeared to be composed of integral dimensions; however, several graphs were classified as unitary or configural. When graphical elements or dimensions were combined into a single object, they tended to be associated with the unitary pattern of performance. Homogeneous object displays tended to be associated with configural outcomes.”
p. 135-139
Kuperman, Gilbert G. and Perez, William A. (1988): A Frame-Based Mission Decomposition Model. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 135-139.
“This paper presents the results of a mathematical modeling (computer simulation) effort that applied frame-based, data processing constructs, originally developed and applied in the context of artificial intelligence, to the decomposition of a complex Air Force bomber mission. The model was written in LISP to facilitate the development of a concurrent processing environment in which to simulate the simultaneous occurrence of multiple external events/crew tasks. The model simulated a four hour segment of a strategic mission scenario. Two distinct crew complements, four-man and two-man, together with their respective levels of aircraft avionics automation, were represented during a proof-of-concept demonstration. The model provided measures of resource (crew and "black box") utilization, presumed to correlate to "workload," at different levels of specificity. These measures were used to identify crew task "choke-points" (large queue sizes, task interrupts) and to evaluate the effects of automation.”
p. 1350-1354
Woods, David D. and Elias, Glenn (1988): Significance Messages: An Integrated Display Concept. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1350-1354.
“This paper describes one integral display concept -- Significance Messages -- which communicates the significance of a numerical value of some continuous parameter. The Significance Messages System combines a variety of kinds of raw data using software techniques from artificial intelligence in order to build a qualitative scale that communicates what a numeric value of some parameter means about the state of the application world given the current context. The Significance Messages concept is built as a generic "shell" that knows about different kinds of qualitative states, contextual factors, and heuristics to focus on relevant data. The designer enters domain specific, parameter specific knowledge about alarm setpoints, automatic system setpoints, etc. and about the specific contextual factors that are relevant to the interpretation of that parameter in order to create a particular Significance Messages Display for a particular application.”
p. 1355-1358
Flach, John M. (1988): Direct Manipulation, Direct Engagement, and Direct Perception: What's Directing What?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1355-1358.
“The term "direct" has been used quite liberally in recent discussions of human performance and human-machine systems. Shneiderman (1983) discusses "direct manipulation"; Hutchins, Hollan and Norman (1986) discuss "direct engagement"; and Gibson (1979) "discusses" "direct perception". This paper will compare these different uses of the term "direct" and will examine the implications for interface design.”
p. 1359-1360
Bennett, C. T., Johnson, W. W., Braunstein, M. L., Flach, J. M. and Wolpert, L. (1988): Perspective Displays: The Control of Motion in 3-D Virtual Space. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1359-1360.
“Perspective displays have been used to better understand how people perceive self translation and rotation. Much of the early work in this are was conducted with cinematic displays and a passive observer. More recently, making use of lower cost, high speed graphics oriented computers, investigators have studied the interactive regulation of perspective scenes. The study of the active control of optical flow has both challenged some early hypotheses, and provided some insight into the impact that methodology has on the perception of perspective displays. The use of perspective displays has also expanded with the opportunity for people to work in 3-D virtual environments. Examples of such environments include work stations in the space shuttle, or indeed any hostile environment where the operator is remote from the viewing plane of a sensor. Such teleoperation has placed a burden on designers of such work stations to understand both the mathematical principles that underlay perspective, as well as the perceptual sensitivity to optical variables. The panel members will discuss the recent developments in the study of optical flow as it relates to the perception of computer generated virtual worlds, and the analytical and methodological techniques involved in the study of perspective displays. But, emphasis will be placed on optical flow and the perception/control of motion while observing perspective displays. The empirical and computational study of optical flow has led to a more complete understanding of the visual information used to control self motion. The term optical flow refers to the relative motion of surface texture elements during angular and/or translational transformation of an observer. Although the mathematical transformation of an entire image is computationally intense, the actual calculation of the movement of texture elements is not difficult. It is based on only three variables: slant angle, slant range, and velocity. Slant angle incorporates both azimuth and elevation of a surface point from the observer. Slant range is the actual line of sight distance between the observer and the texture element. Velocity, of course, incorporates both the speed and the direction of translation or rotation of the observer. It is important to remember that the term optical flow makes reference to the geometric relationship of surface points to an observer, and how that relationship changes as the observer moves. In using the term optical flow, it is not assumed that the observer can or does make appropriate use of the optical information. Optical flow merely makes reference to the physical stimuli. The term visual flow refers to those elements in the optical flow that are supra-threshold. Perspective displays are typically based on the graphical representation of a surface. At a minimum, these displays incorporate the density and compression gradients that describe the plane. Density is defined as the frequency of surface elements within a given viewing angle. Compression refers to the apparent decrease in distance between surface elements as distance from the observer increases. If we are to describe and quantify how a human operator uses a perspective display, we must be careful how we operationally define the very basic concepts discussed above. How such concepts have been quantified will serve as the central theme of the discussions.”
p. 1361-1365
Coury, Bruce G. and Purcell, Janine (1988): The Bargraph as a Configural and a Separable Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1361-1365.
“The results from two experiments demonstrate the conditions under which a bargraph display can be processed both as a configural display and as a separable display. When there is a unique mapping of display attributes to system state categories (Experiment 1), the perceptual cues in the bargraph display serve to produce superior classification performance. Once that mapping and predictability is disrupted (Experiment 2), operators resort to analyzing the bargraph display in a separable fashion and produce performance equivalent to the serially processed digital display. Uncertainty (i.e., the degree to which a value or set of values of process variables map to a single system state) appears to be the primary factor affecting the way in which the bargraph display will be processed.”
p. 1366-1370
Purcell, Janine A. and Coury, Bruce G. (1988): Asymmetric Transfer of Training Between Integral and Separable Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1366-1370.
“The type of display employed during operator training may affect the formation of an operator's internal model of the system. In this experiment, subjects were divided into two groups and trained to classify instances of system state using either a configural or digital display. During extended practice the subjects were then switched to the alternate display type; those trained on the configural display now worked with the digital display, and vice verse. Results indicate that asymmetric transfer of training occurred; those who switched from the digital to the configural display outperformed the other group by a significant margin in term of accuracy. Results are discussed in terms of the impact of display type on the formation of the operator's internal model and bias of processing strategy in transfer situations.”
p. 1371-1375
Andre, Anthony D. and Wickens, Christopher D. (1988): The Interaction of Spatial and Color Proximity in Aircraft Stability Information Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1371-1375.
“The objective of a complex display design is to provide information in a way that maximizes the user's ability to process that information. This paper explores the effects of manipulating the spatial and color proximity among the information displays relevant to aircraft stability during both integration and focused attention tasks. The principle of compatibility of proximity (Wickens, 1987) suggests that tasks requiring the operator to integrate multiple sources of information are better served by close display proximity while tasks that require focused attention on specific sources of information are better served by more separate displays. Color proximity results clearly supported this principle and showed that using a common color (i.e. close proximity) to code different information sources facilitated integration performance while using separate colors to code different information sources facilitated focused attention performance. However, close spatial proximity did not foster integration. Instead, distant spatial proximity yielded superior performance for both focused attention and integration tasks.”
p. 1376-1380
Sundstrom, Gunilla A. (1988): Modeling Information Search Behavior for Design Purposes: An Example from Process Control. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1376-1380.
“Current model son operator behavior in supervisory control systems are reviewed with special focus on their usefulness for graphical design of human-machine interfaces in dynamic technical systems. An alternative framework is described and used in a knowledge based approach to represent information search behavior of operators for graphical design purposes.”
p. 1381-1385
Smith, Wanda (1988): Standardizing Colors for Computer Screens. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1381-1385.
“The increase and excessive use of inappropriate and inconsistent colors on computer display images has necessitated the development of standards for their color specification. A description is given of the color standard draft proposal developed for ISO (International Organization for Standardization). The draft includes specifications for color values to ensure color perception and interpretation and an Annex of non-normative guidelines.”
p. 1386-1390
Decker, Jennie J., Dye, Craig J., Kurokawa, Ko and Lloyd, Charles J. C. (1988): Effects of Display Failures and Symbol Rotation on Visual Search Using Dot-Matrix Symbols. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1386-1390.
“This study was conducted tin investigate the effects of display failures and rotation of dot-matrix symbols on visual search performance. The type of display failure (cell, horizontal line, vertical line), failure mode (ON, failures matched the symbols; OFF, failures matched the background), percentage of failures (0, 1, 2, 3, 4%), and rotation angle (0, 70, 105 degrees) were the variables examined. Results showed that displays which exhibit ON cell failures greater than 1% significantly affect search time performance. Cell failures degrade performance more than line failures. Search time and accuracy were best when symbols were oriented upright. The effects of display failures and rotation angle were found to be independent. Implications for display design and suggestions for quantifying the distortion due to rotation are discussed.”
p. 1391-1394
Kurokawa, Ko, Decker, Jennie J., Kelly, Patti L. and Synder, Harry L. (1988): The Effects of Image Rotation on Dot-Matrix Characters. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1391-1394.
“This study investigated how rotation of dot-matrix characters influenced human performance, measured by the response time in a random search task. Factors that influence the extent of dot-matrix pattern distortion were identified, and their effects were investigated. Significant effects were found in angle of rotation (p=0.0046; 0 to 180 degrees in a 5-degree increment), target character's distance from the center of rotation (p<0.0001), and target characters (p<0.0001). Issues pertinent in predicting the effect of dot-matrix pattern distortion on performance are discussed.”
p. 1395-1399
Osgood, Sarah Swierenga, Boff, Kenneth R. and Donovan, Rebecca S. (1988): Rapid Communication Display Technology Efficiency in a Multi-Task Environment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1395-1399.
“The present study examined the advantage of Rapid Communication (RAP-COM) Display Technology over conventional spatially arrayed displays in the context of secondary task demands. This research represents an early step in assessing the use of RAP-COM display techniques in multi-task environments. Eight subjects were instructed to respond to briefly presented visual stimuli, while concurrently performing an unstable tracking task at two levels of difficulty. Duration thresholds, obtained using a moment-to-moment adaptive tracking performance procedure, were collected for RAP-COM and spatially arrayed displays while RMS error scores were collected from the unstable tracking task performance. Information transfer rates for the RAP-COM technique were faster than for the spatially distributed array under both the single and dual task conditions. Regardless of secondary tracking task difficulty, subjects were able to maintain primary task performance levels on RAP-COM and spatial display tasks, although a decrement in tracking performance was seen.”
p. 140-144
Stollings, Michael N., Edwards, Richard E. and Rankin, William L. (1988): Using Mission Decomposition Tools in Advanced Cockpit Applications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 140-144.
“This paper describes an interactive, computer-based Mission Decomposition Tool (MDT) developed as part of the Cockpit Automation Technology Program sponsored by the Air Force System Command's Human Systems Division. The purpose of this tool is to improve the efficiency of the crewstation design process. Specific activities supported by the MDT include generation and decomposition of Air-to-Air and Air-to-Ground mission scenarios; generation of mission event timelines; and post-flight analysis. Mission generation/decomposition involves the laydown of maps, map features (streams, roads, etc), threats, targets and waypoints. The mission event timeline is generated automatically when a mission is flown and may be edited to ensure that unique mission activities are included. Post-flight analysis options include plots of threat exposure, terrain masking, terrain following, terrain clearance, discrete mission events, and aircraft performance data. The MDT strengthens the connection between analysis and test and evaluation activities in the areas of mission planning, pilot briefing, simulation set-up, performance assessment, and post-flight analysis.”
p. 1400-1403
Wilson, Glenn F. and McCloskey, Kathy (1988): Using Probe Evoked Potentials to Determine Information Processing Demands. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1400-1403.
“In the present study, three different types of probe evoked potential (EP) techniques were examined using a mental math task with three levels of difficulty. One probe condition consisted of presenting flashes at 5 sec intervals during the performance of each task level. The other conditions were designed such that probe flashes were presented at 250 and 750 msec after the onset of each mental math task item. Baseline (no task) measurements were taken for all three probe conditions. Subjects were 6 males and 4 females who participated in an earlier study (Yolton, Wilson, Davis and McCloskey, 1987), and were recalled for the present experiment. Results of the RT data replicated those found in Yolton, et al (1987), where RT increased as task level increased. The EPs obtained from each of the probe conditions showed different patterns of variation with task demand. The 5 sec probe showed differences between the no-task baseline and all other levels of the task, but not between task levels. The 250 msec probe EPs showed graded changes with task level, whereas the 750 msec probe EPs were similar to those found with the 5 sec probe EPs. These measures support the notion that probe EPs are not only measures of tonic activity, but are also measures of phasic activity. To index phasic activity, probes must be present during relevant times during task performance. The usefulness of this technique is discussed in terms of moment-to-moment fluctuations of processing demands in applied situations.”
p. 1404-1408
Lalehzarian, Hamo (1988): Mental Workload and P300 Component of Event-Related Brain Potentials in a Visual Monitoring Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1404-1408.
“The attributes of event-related brain potentials (ERPs) when combined with the information gained from the study of apparent human behavior, can provide valuable information about central nervous system processes. This study illustrates the manner in which these attributes, specifically P300 amplitude, can be used to study human information processing. This research investigated the effects of a systematic increase in mental workload, and the position of the stimulus on the P300 amplitude. The task chosen was a visual monitoring task with four levels of increased task difficulty. A slight increase in the P300 amplitude was observed from level 1 to level 2. At level 3, a significant increase in the amplitude of P300 component was observed from level 2. At level four, no major increase in the P300 amplitude was observed from level 3. At any task difficulty level, the P300 amplitudes were not affected by the position of the monitored cell. Infrequent large changes in the readout value of the monitored cells elicited larger P300 amplitudes than frequent small changes.”
p. 1409-1413
Albery, William B., Roe, Merry M., Goodyear, Charles D. and McCloskey, Kathy A. (1988): The Effects of Biodynamic Stress on Workload in Human Operators. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1409-1413.
“The objective of this research was to assess the effects of two biodynamic stressors, noise and acceleration, commonly experienced in the aircraft cockpit, on human operator performance and workload. Thirteen workload measures, including one subjective, four performance and eight physiological, were recorded on subjects performing a dual psychomotor task. The results indicate that biodynamic stressors such as noise and acceleration can adversely affect subjective operator workload without affecting objective task performance.”
p. 1414-1418
Reid, Gary B. and Colle, Herbert A. (1988): Critical SWAT Values for Predicting Operator Overload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1414-1418.
“The Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) has been used to assess mental workload in a variety of situations. As with subjective techniques generally, use of SWAT has emphasized relative comparisons of task conditions. For example, it has been possible to determine if one task or display required a greater mental workload than another. For many applications, however, it would be useful to have identified a critical SWAT level that indicates likely performance degradation caused by operator overload. A review of previously completed studied suggests a range of SWAT scores that were predictive of operator overload.”
p. 1419-1423
Koch, Christopher G. and Ju, Ginny (1988): Video Image Presentation Methods for High-Speed Mail Piece Encoding. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1419-1423.
“A program of research was conducted to determine the design requirements for a prototype image processing system to provide high-resolution video images of mail pieces -- irregular parcels and pieces, flats, and letters -- and enable high-speed data entry of coding information by operators. Experiments were performed to determine effective image transition methods, pacing strategies, and image preview methods for entering numerals from ZIP Codes of mail piece addresses on a 10-key keyboard. Results showed performance advantages of response speed, throughput, and fewer misses for fade-out transition between images, combined operator and machine pacing, and image preview by early transition to the next image in queue.”
p. 1424-1428
Janson, William P. and Calhoun, Gloria L. (1988): Latencies of the Eye and Head to Targets in the Vertical and Horizontal Planes. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1424-1428.
“Past studies involving oculomotor responses have typically been limited to refixations along the horizontal plane, small samples sizes, and little data pertaining to head movement. The study reported herein addresses these data voids by collecting both eye and head latency data for refixations in the horizontal and vertical planes. The subjects' task was to perform a central manual tracking task while periodically responding to a verbal command to classify a target on one of four peripheral monitors. Two targets were displayed along the horizontal plane and two along the vertical plane. Results from 620 trials indicated similar trends for the eye and head latency across all four monitor locations, suggesting no significant differences in eye or head latency as a function of target plane.”
p. 1429-1433
Wells, Maxwell J., Venturino, Michael and Osgood, Robert K. (1988): Using Target Replacement Performance to Measure Spatial Awareness in a Helmet-Mounted Simulator. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1429-1433.
“Measurements were made of the ability of 20 subjects to acquire 3,6 or 9 stationary visual targets and then replace them after they had been removed. The targets were viewed with various sized fields-of-view (FOVs) using a Visually Coupled Airborne Systems Simulator (VCASS), which was mounted on the head and which used head position information to provide space-stabilized computer-generated images. Targets were presented with a blank background or a terrain background. Subjects were instructed to use as much time as they required or to be as quick as possible searching for the targets. Mean times to search for the targets were faster with the larger FOVs and faster with fewer targets. Replacement accuracy was not sensitive to the FOV but decreased with increasing number of targets. Search times were slower, but replacement accuracy was greater with a terrain background than with a bland background. In the fast search conditions, the number of guessed target replacements decreased with decreasing numbers of targets and increasing FOV. It is concluded that target replacement performance was sensitive to manipulation of the independent variables and as such is a potentially useful metric of spatial awareness.”
p. 1434-1438
Dyre, Brian P. and Andersen, George J. (1988): Perceived Change in Orientation from Optic Flow in the Central Visual Field. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1434-1438.
“An important consideration for some types of flight simulation is that sufficient information be provided for a vertical perception of a pilot's motion and/or change in orientation. Previous research (Andersen & Braunstein, 1985) has suggested that induced self-motion from stimulation of the central visual field may be related to internal depth within the display. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of internal depth within the display on perceived changes in orientation. Subjects monocularly viewed displays simulating observer motion within a volume of randomly positioned points through a window which limited the field of view to 15 degrees. The velocity of the displays varied according to a sum of four frequencies. Change in posture was used to measure changes in perceived spatial orientation. Three variables were examined: 1) the extent of internal depth within the display, 2) the presence of absence of visual information specifying change in orientation, and 3) the frequency of motion simulated by the display. A frequency analysis of postural sway indicated that increased sway occurred at frequencies of .375 Hz and lower when motion at these frequencies was present in the display. However, the extent of internal depth in the display had no consistent effect on the perception of changing orientation. The implication of this research for flight simulation will be discussed.”
p. 1439-1442
Tittle, James S., Rouse, Michael W. and Braunstein, Myron L. (1988): Relationship of Static Stereoscopic Depth Perception to Performance with Dynamic Stereoscopic Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1439-1442.
“Although most tasks performed by human observers that require accurate stereoscopic depth perception, such as working with tools, operating machinery, and controlling vehicles, involve dynamically changing disparities, classification of observers as having normal or deficient stereoscopic vision is currently based on performance with static stereoscopic displays. The present study compares the performance of subjects classified as deficient in static stereoscopic vision to a control group with normal stereoscopic vision in two experiments -- one in which the disparities were constant during motion and one in which in the disparities changed continuously. In the first experiment, subjects judged orientation in depth of a dihedral angle, with the apex pointed toward or away from them. The angle translated horizontally, leaving the disparities constant. When disparity and motion parallax were placed in conflict, subjects in the normal group almost always responded in accordance with disparity, where as subjects in the deficient group responded in accordance with disparity at chance levels. In the second experiment, subjects were asked to judge the direction of rotation of a computer-generated cylinder. When dynamic occlusion and dynamic disparity indicated conflicting directions, performance of subjects in the normal and deficient groups did not differ significantly. When only dynamic disparity information was provided, most subjects classified as stereo deficient were able to judge the direction of rotation accurately. These results indicate that measures of stereoscopic vision do not include changing disparities may not provide a complete evaluation of the ability of a human observer to perceive depth on the basis of disparity.”
p. 1443-1447
Schaeffer, Maurice S. and Campbell, John L. (1988): Vertical Disparity in Advanced Automotive Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1443-1447.
“The optical systems being considered for automotive virtual image displays may confront drivers with significantly more vertical disparity than their military counterparts. Military head-up displays, for example, are limited to 1 milliradian (mrad) of vertical disparity whereas automotive displays may have 5 mrad. Three experiments were performed to examine performance with virtual image displays as a function of amount of vertical disparity. Stimuli were simple speedometer dials with embedded tripmeters representing both analog and digital display tasks. Stimuli were presented tachistoscopically and subjects were required to read one or both instruments on each trial. Disparity did not affect performance accuracy. Large disparities did, however, results in diplopia and, possibly suppression of one of the visual images. Nevertheless, it appears that, at least in the driving situation, where displays are used intermittently and briefly for the information contained in them, comparatively large amounts of vertical disparity in displays will not degrade performance and may not be noticed.”
p. 1448-1452
Dingus, Thomas A., Antin, Jonathan F., Hulse, Melissa C. and Wierwille, Walter W. (1988): Human Factors Issues Associated with In-Car Navigation System Usage (An Overview of Two In-Car Experimental Studies). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1448-1452.
“Two research studies were recently performed to evaluate and test human factors aspects of a commercially available in-car navigation system. The first study addressed the driver visual attentional demand requirements of the system and its effects on driving performance and behavior. The second study addressed the effectiveness of the system as a navigation tool as well as methodological aspects of navigation. The results of the first study indicate that several tasks performed during navigation required high visual attentional demand. Design changes are discussed which would likely reduce this demand. The results of the second study indicate that drivers are able to navigate effectively using the device. However, results also show that scan patterns are changed when the device is in-use.”
p. 145-149
Higgins, Thomas J. and Chignell, Mark (1988): Mental Models: A Fifth Paradigm?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 145-149.
“This paper describes ongoing research concerned with the development of a mental model for human pilots performing the final phases of an instrument landing approach. The results of three experiments are reported. The first experiment (reported more extensively by Higgins and Chignell, 1987) was used to select the parameters used in the subsequent experiments. The second experiment tested the validity of collecting verbal protocols during simulated instrument landings, while the third experiment studied the behavior of pilots when a wind condition, and additional information, are introduced to the task. In the third experiment, theoretically useful information was provided by an experimenter simulating the advice that would be given by an expert system. However, the results of this experiment showed that information hurt, rather than helped, performance. Verbal protocols were also collected in the three experiments. The second experiment tested the effect that collecting verbal protocols had on pilot performance on the task. Although some perturbation of task performance was observed, think aloud protocols were found to give satisfactory results, while the newly developed method "division of labor" (Higgins and Chignell, 1987) was found to be unsatisfactory as currently used (without specific training of each pilot-copilot pair).”
p. 1453-1457
Miller, Dwight P. (1988): Distance and Clearance Perception Using Forward-Looking, Vehicular Television Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1453-1457.
“During off-road navigation, drivers often must make size, distance, and clearance judgments of terrain features and obstacles in order to choose safe navigational routes. These same judgments must be made in teleoperation of land vehicles using forward-looking television systems. This study evaluated how well subjects perceived size, distance, and clearance using monochrome and color television systems. Thirty-eight subjects (Ss) estimated the size, distance, and separation of two obstacles using video imagery produced by a forward-looking, vehicle-mounted camera. Results indicate that Ss typically overestimated distances, and when in error judging clearance, tended to overestimate the gap between the objects. These biases were expected due to the well documented minification effect of television using standard lenses. More surprising was the somewhat larger bias evidenced by Ss using color versus those using monochrome imagery. This paper will describe the research methodology, the results obtained, potential reasons for the results, discuss the plans for continuing research in this area, and assess the implications these findings may have on teleoperated vehicle design.”
p. 1458-1462
Deaton, John E. and Parasuraman, Raja (1988): Effects of Task Demands and Age on Vigilance and Subjective Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1458-1462.
“Sensory and cognitive vigilance were directly compared in two experiments. The question of whether sensory and cognitive vigilance task demands can be differentiated on the basis of perceived workload was also addressed. A third focus of the study was to investigate changes in sensory and cognitive vigilance across the adult life span. In Experiment 1 60 subjects from three age categories -- young, middle, and elderly were studied. Experiment 2 consisted of 20 subjects from only the young and old age categories. Subjects performed a visual sensory and a cognitive vigilance task at low and high event rates. Each task used identical stimulus sets (pairs of digits) and differed only in the definition of a critical target. Task demands were a major determinant of vigilance performance. Cognitive vigilance was more resistant to decrement over time than sensory vigilance. On the other hand, the cognitive task was more adversely affected by high event rate than the cognitive task, particularly at the high event rate. Subjective workload results suggested that the increased mental demands required of the cognitive task at the high event rate were associated with performance differences between sensory and cognitive tasks. However, the results also revealed an apparent dissociation between performance and subjective workload measures. Implications of the results for display design and assessment of individual differences in monitoring capability are discussed.”
p. 1463-1465
Gluckman, Jonathan P., Dember, William N. and Warm, Joel S. (1988): Capacity Demand in Dual-Task Monitoring of Simultaneous and Successive Vigilance Tasks. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1463-1465.
“Parasuraman and Davies (1977) have proposed a taxonomic analysis of vigilance performance which emphasizes the types of discriminations observers are required to make and the information-processing demands placed upon them. According to Parasuraman and Davies, successive (absolute judgement) tasks are more capacity-demanding than simultaneous (comparative judgement) tasks because they invoke working memory. This idea has received support from several investigations demonstrating that psychophysical factors which degrade vigilance performance have more of a negative impact upon successive than upon simultaneous tasks (see Parasuraman, Warm and Dember, 1987 for review). The present study examined the capacity-demand notion further by determining the effects that the two types of tasks have upon one another when they are both performed in a common vigilance session. By doing so, it provides the initial experimental effort to investigate the task dimension of the taxonomy within the context of a previously unexplored aspect of Parasuraman and Davies' classification system, source complexity.”
p. 1466-1470
Spitz, Gabriel (1988): Flexibility in Resource Allocation and the Performance of Time-Sharing Tasks. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1466-1470.
“The extent and nature of the ability to control the allocation of mental resources between the components of a dual task was investigated in three separate experiments. Using a variable priority (demand) methodology it was found that subjects could manipulate their performance level, however their ability to meet specific demand levels was limited. Training subjects under single or dual-task conditions using a wide range of task demand significantly improved dual task performance and degree of control over resource allocation as compared to performance following practice under a narrow range of task demands or under single task fixed demand conditions. Single task performance among all groups improved to the same degree. It was concluded that training subjects under a wide range of task demands increases the range of performance levels over which mental resources can be flexibly allocated for those tasks and improves time sharing performance. Implications for the design of training for complex task performance are discussed.”
p. 1471-1475
Vidulich, Michael A. and Bortolussi, Michael R. (1988): A Dissociation of Objective and Subjective Workload Measures in Assessing the Impact of Speech Controls in Advanced Helicopters. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1471-1475.
“Among the new technologies that are expected to aid helicopter designers are speech controls. Proponents suggest that speech controls could reduce the potential for manual control overloads and improve time-sharing performance in environments that have heavy demands for manual control. This was tested in a simulation of an advanced single-pilot, scout/attack helicopter. Objective performance indicated that the speech controls were effective in decreasing the interference of discrete responses during moments of heavy flight control activity. However, subjective ratings indicated that the use of speech controls required extra effort to speak precisely and to attend to feedback. Although the operational reliability of speech controls must be improved, the present results indicate that reliable speech controls could enhance the time-sharing efficiency of helicopter pilots. Furthermore, the results demonstrated the importance of using multiple assessment techniques to completely assess a task. Neither the objective nor the subjective measures alone provided complete information. It was the contrast between that was most informative.”
p. 15-19
Wolpert, Lawrence (1988): The Active Control of Altitude over Differing Texture. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 15-19.
“Earlier passive judgment studies showed that detection of loss in altitude was more accurate over texture consisting of stripes parallel to the direction of flight, than over texture consisting of perpendicular stripes or a combination of both, i.e., a square pattern. The current experiment required the participants to actively control and maintain a constant altitude over similar texture in the presence of a pseudorandom windgust. Results corresponded to those of the earlier judgment study with altitude being better controlled when flight took place over parallel texture, than over perpendicular or square texture. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.”
p. 150-154
Battiste, Vernol and Bortolussi, Michael (1988): Transport Pilot Workload: A Comparison of Two Subjective Techniques. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 150-154.
“Although SWAT and NASA-TLX workload scales have been compared on numerous occasions, they have not been compared in the context of transport operations. Transport pilot workload has traditionally been classified as long periods of low workload with occasional spikes of high workload. Thus, the relative sensitivity of the scales to variations in workload at the low end of the scale were evaluated. This study was a part of a larger study which investigated workload measures for aircraft certification, conducted in a Phase II certified Link/Boeing 727 simulator. No significant main effects were found for any performance-based measures of workload. However both SWAT and NASA-TLX were sensitive to differences between high and low workload flights and to differences among flight segments. NASA-TLX (but not SWAT) was sensitive to the increase in workload during the cruise segment of the high workload flight. Between-subject variability was high for SWAT. NASA-TLX was found to be stable when compared in the test/retest paradigm. A test/retest by segment interaction suggested that this was not the case for SWAT ratings.”
p. 155-159
Kilmer, Kevin J., Knapp, Robert, Burdsal, Charles, Borresen, Robert, Bateman, Robert and Malzahn, Don (1988): Techniques of Subjective Assessment: A Comparison of the SWAT and Modified Cooper-Harper Scales. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 155-159.
“This study examined two subjective mental workload assessment scales, the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) and the Modified Cooper-Harper (MCH) Scale. The purpose of this study was to make a direct comparison of the two scales in order to determine if both scales were equally sensitive to changes in task difficulty hence, workload. Forth introductory psychology non-aviator students were trained on an aviation like psychomotor dual-task experiment. Task difficulty was manipulated by presenting the subjects with three (low, moderate, high) levels of wind gust disturbance (turbulence) and requiring them to maintain an assigned altitude and airspeed, while responding to a visual choice reaction time secondary task. The data was analyzed using multivariate statistics. The results of the analysis found that both the SWAT and MCH were sensitive to changes in task difficulty. However, the MCH appeared to be less sensitive than the SWAT.”
p. 160-161
Majoros, Anthony E. (1988): Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 160-161.
“Aircraft present significant challenges to the people who maintain them. Time pressure, the complexity of aircraft systems, the need to adhere to minute detail, and cramped working spaces generally interact to create a difficult work setting. Due to the cognitive, biodynamic, and endurance demands of this work, human capacities and limitations are important variables in civil and military aviation maintenance. The critical nature of these variables is indicated in a variety of emerging research issues.”
p. 162-163
Nataupsky, Mark, Pope, Alan T., McManus, Mary L. and Burdette, Daniel X. (1988): Workload Evaluations of a Stereo 3-D Computer-Generated Pictorial Primary Flight Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 162-163.
“With the advent of digital avionics and cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, the use of computer-generated flight displays has become increasingly prevalent in both commercial and military cockpits. These flight displays, however, typically are renditions of the electromechanical displays that are being replaced. But there is great potential for display enhancement and integration through formats such as pictorial, real-world formats that could enhance situation awareness and reduce crew workload. This study had as its objective the exploration of workload measures in conjunction with a larger study of a computer-generated, integrated pictorial primary flight display presented in stereo and non-stereo modes. Of interest in the workload aspect of the study was the ability to differentiate workload attendant with use of several versions of the pictorial display having alternate implementations of 3-D symbology cues, presented in stereo and non-stereo modes. Both physiological and subjective measures were used with a pilot-in-the-loop flight simulation task. The physiological measure was visually-evoked brain wave potentials; the subjective measure was the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) (Reid, Shingledecker, and Eggemeier, 1981a and Reid, Shingledecker, Clark, and Eggemeier, 1981b). A number of physiological studies have demonstrated the relationship of the P300 component of event-related brain potentials to controlled stimuli (e.g., Zacharias, 1988). Further physiological studies by Kramer, Donchin, and Wickens (In Press) have shown that the amplitude of the P300 can be related to levels of pilot workload. The SWAT is a validated measure of subjective workload. Nataupsky and Abbott (1987) used SWAT to differentiate levels of a pilot's perception of workload in a piloted simulator flight task. The workload portion of the study was accomplished in the following manner. Pilots were initialized on the nominal flight path (as defined within the pictorial display). After approximately 2 seconds, they were suddenly offset to one of eight positions. The sudden display shift was the stimulus to which pilots had been asked to respond with control inputs and was the trigger for the visually-evoked response. Thus, contrary to previous studies conducted at Langley which used secondary tasks to elicit evoked potentials, this study had the primary task as the trigger for the evoked response. The pilots' task was to make the initial pitch and/or roll input necessary to correct back to the nominal flight path. Data was collected on 216 trials for each of eight Air Force pilots. Analysis of the workload data is in progress.”
p. 164-167
Moray, Neville, Kruschelnicky, Eugene, Eisen, Paul, Money, Laura and Turksen, I. B. (1988): A Fuzzy Set Analysis of Skill, Rule and Knowledge-Based Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 164-167.
“Using fuzzy measures of task difficulty the effect of combining different aspects of a task on the overall task workload was explored. A complete set of combination rules is provided, of the general form "if the skill-based component is slightly difficult, the rule-based moderately difficult, and the knowledge-based slightly difficult, then the task as a whole is moderately difficult." Fuzzy linguistic variables provide an adequate systematic framework for such combined judgments.”
p. 168-172
Wickens, Christopher D., Harwood, Kelly, Segal, Leon, Tkalcevic, Inge and Sherman, Bill (1988): TASKILLAN: A Simulation to Predict the Validity of Multiple Resource Models of Aviation Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 168-172.
“The objective of this research was to establish the validity of predictive models of workload in the context of a controlled simulation of a helicopter flight mission. The models that were evaluated contain increasing levels of sophistication regarding their assumptions about the competition for processing resources underlying multiple task performance. Ten subjects performed the simulation which involved various combinations of a low level flight task with three cognitive side tasks, pertaining to navigation, spatial awareness and computation. Side task information was delivered auditorily or visually. Results indicated that subjective workload is best predicted by relatively simple models that simply integrate the total demands of tasks over time (r = 0.65). In contrast, performance is not well predicted by these models (r < .10), but is best predicted by models that assume differential competition between processing resources (r = 0.47). The relevance of these data to predictive models and to the use of subjective measures for model validation is discussed.”
p. 173-177
Wickens, Christopher D., Stokes, Alan F., Barnett, Barbara and Hyman, Fred (1988): Stress and Pilot Judgement: An Empirical Study Using MIDIS, a Microcomputer-Based Simulation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 173-177.
“This report presents an information processing framework for predicting the effects of stress manipulations on pilot decision making. The framework predicts that stressors related to anxiety, time pressure, and high risk situations will restrict the range of cue sampling and reduce the capacity of working memory, but will not affect decisions that are based upon direct retrieval of knowledge from long term memory. These predictions were tested on MIDIS, a microcomputer-based pilot decision simulator. Performance on a series of 38 decision problems was compared between ten subjects in a control group and ten subjects who had performed under conditions of noise, concurrent task loading, time pressure, and financial risk. The results indicated that the stress manipulation significantly reduced the optimality and confidence of decisions. The manipulations imposed their greatest effect on problems that were coded high on spatial demand and on problems requiring integration of information from the dynamic instrumental panel. The effects of stress were relatively independent of problem demands associated with working memory and with the retrieval of knowledge from long term memory.”
p. 178-182
Shaffer, Margaret T., Hendy, Keith C. and White, Lou R. (1988): An Empirically Validated Task Analysis (EVTA) of Low Level Army Helicopter Operations. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 178-182.
“A computer-based Empirically Validated Task Analysis (EVTA) of Canadian Forces light observation helicopter operations was conducted from video records of cockpit activity gathered during flight. The task analysis was performed in order to provide data for function analysis and workload prediction studies in support of the Canadian Forces Light Helicopter replacement project. Observable behaviors were categorized according to the type of activity involved and communications were analyzed for content, agencies involved, and relevance to the crew's task. The results of this study indicate that data gathered from a controlled test environment can differ considerably from those obtained in operational settings and that miniature video cameras can be useful in obtaining information from environments which hitherto may have been inaccessible to all but operational personnel.”
p. 183
Small, Arnold M., Czaja, Sara J., Barr, Robin and Pew, Richard W. (1988): Programs in Human Factors and Aging: National Research Council and National Institutes on Aging. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 183.
“Within the last year, these two Federal agencies have developed insights, research needs and programs related to human factors and aging. These will be described and their significance assessed by the panel speakers and discussants. Audience participation is invited.”
p. 184
Meadows, Susan (1988): The Wave of Innovation for an Aging Society: Enhancing Independent Living. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 184.
“"The Wave of Innovation for an Aging Society" encompasses serious concerns for all who envision an independent, healthy, and functioning society in the future. By the year 2000, one in five Americans will be over the age of 55. In order to address the challenges facing society for continued functioning, technological innovations of today must be explored as viable strategies. This panel will discuss the application of human factors principles in safety, health care, and technology toward the enhancement of work and independent living for the future.”
p. 185-188
Verhaegen, Paul K., Toebat, Katrien L. and Delbeke, Luc L. (1988): Safety of Older Drivers: A Study of Their Over-Involvement Ratio. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 185-188.
“An analysis of reports of 660 two-car collisions from the records of an insurance company showed that car drivers of 60 years old and older are more apt to be considered liable in an accident than younger drivers. A comparison of accidents for which older drivers (60 yrs. and over) are responsible with accidents for which younger drivers (30-39 yrs.) are responsible showed that the former have problems of perception and decision making and that the latter have problems with speed.”
p. 189-193
Strawbridge, Jill Annette (1988): An Information Processing Approach to the Problem of Medication Noncompliance among Older Adults. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 189-193.
“A preliminary experiment was conducted to investigate a cognitive processing explanation for prescription drug noncompliance among older adults. The experimental construct tested was that the dynamic underlying the misinterpretation of many medicine directives is directly related to the number of mental operations that each format requires in order to answer a specific question about dosage information. Reaction times and error rates were found to follow a pattern of results which supports the hypotheses for both older and younger adults. Increasing the number of mental operations was found to be most detrimental to the performance of adults age 75 years and older.”
p. 194-197
Ballas, James and Barnes, Mark E. (1988): Everyday Sound Perception and Aging. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 194-197.
“Age related hearing loss is extensively documented in both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies but there are no direct studies of the ability of older persons to perceive everyday sounds. There is evidence suggesting some impairment. Vanderveer (1979) observed that older listeners had difficulty interpreting environmental sounds but did not report any performance data. Demands imposed by the stimulus properties of this type of sound and by the perceptual and cognitive processes found to mediate perception of this sound in college-aged listeners may present difficulty for older listeners. Forty-seven members of a retired organization were given a subset of sounds that had been used in previous identification studies. Identification data for the same set of sounds had been previously obtained from high school and college students (Ballas, Dick, & Groshek, 1987). The ability of the aged group to identify this set of sounds was not significantly different from the ability of a student group. In fact, uncertainties were closely matched except for a few sounds. Directions for future research are discussed.”
p. 198-202
Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1988): Age-Related Effects of Stimulus-Specific Context on Perceptual Learning. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 198-202.
“The focus of the present study was the investigation of age-related differences in perceptual learning under conditions of consistent mapping (CM), varied mapping (VM), and context-specific training. Context-specific training involved conditions where specific target and distract sets were paired consistently within a condition but were inconsistent across conditions. Eight young (mean age 25) and eight old (mean age 67) subjects participated for 8000 trials of training and 3200 trials of various transfer conditions. The transfer conditions were designed to ascertain the extent to which the subjects had automatized their performance in each of the training conditions. The training results yielded significant differences between young and old adults only under CM training. Performance in the context conditions for young adults mimicked that of the old subjects in the CM condition. The training results suggest that manipulations which disrupt the development of attention-calling strength of stimuli lead to equivalent performance for young and old adults. The transfer results provide similar information. It is proposed that the ability to "strengthen" target information is disrupted in older adults. Based on our previous and the present findings, processing principles are presented which outline important differential considerations for training young and/or older adults.”
p. 20-24
Gawron, Valerie J., Schiflett, Samuel, Miller, James and Ball, John (1988): Incident Analysis of the Effects of Pyridostigmine Bromide. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 20-24.
“The effects of a chemical defense protective drug, pyridostigmine bromide (PB), on inflight aircrew performance were assessed using the Total In-Flight Simulation (TIFS) aircraft. This aircraft was used as both a ground and inflight simulator supplying appropriate control feel, handling characteristics, and cockpit instrumentation for a tactical-transport simulation. Twenty-one C-130 pilots flew two familiarization and four data flights. As part of this study, video recordings of aircrew behavior from preflight through landing were analyzed using an incident analysis technique. Behaviors were grouped in 23 categories including irritability, humor, and accidental activation. The frequencies of occurrences of each of these behaviors by drug (PB or placebo) and crew position (pilot or copilot) are presented as well as an assessment of the utility of the incident analysis technique in drug research.”
p. 203-207
Vercruyssen, Max, Cann, Michael T., McDowd, Joan M., Birren, James E., Carlton, Barbara L., Burton, Jane and Hancock, P. A. (1988): Effects of Age, Gender, Activation, Stimulus Degradation and Practice on Attention and Visual Choice Reaction Time. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 203-207.
“This paper presents research conducted by the authors and others investigating the interaction of a variety of variables which are presumed to affect reaction time in hopes of obtaining much needed information on factors influencing age effects on attention and information processing. Reported is progress to date on an experiment which shows that the effects of age on central nervous system speed, as measured by visual choice reaction time, depends on many factors, including the gender, neural activation level, and skill of the subject as well as the stimulus quality and type of reaction task employed.”
p. 208-212
Carlton, Barbara L., Vercruyssen, Max, McDowd, Joan M. and Birren, James E. (1988): Effects of Age and Practice on Attention and Stages of Information Processing using CRT with Fixed and Variable Foreperiods. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 208-212.
“The results of previous investigations have found conflicting results on the locus of age-related slowing of reaction time using Additive Factors Method (Sternberg, 1969). This experiment was conducted to examine the differential effects of Additive Factors Method task manipulations using both fixed and variable foreperiod conditions with practice preceding a second day replication to quantify the interaction of these effects with skill. The results show that (1) practice is a major confounding for research involving RT tasks, (2) the locus of age effects may lie in the later response selection stage of processing, and (3) the effects of aging, practice and intra-task factors depend on the response-stimulus interval characterizing the RT task. This research has implications for improving research methodologies and understanding the nature of age-related slowing in central nervous system functions.”
p. 213-214
Smith, David B. D., Sloan, Gary D., Koonce, Jefferson M., Johnson, Daniel A. and Levine, Martin (1988): The Older and Disabled Population: Forensic Issues in Accidents and Age Discrimination. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 213-214.
“Both the forensic and aging domains have emerged in the last 10 years, as growing areas in human factors. These two areas are likely to find more and more issues of common concern as the U.S. population ages. There were some 50.2 million Americans age 55 and over in 1984, or one-fifth of the population. About one-half of this number were over the age of 65. In the next 30 years, the over 55 age population will have grown to one-third of all Americans, with persons over 65 being one-fifth of the population. These demographic trends, plus an elderly cohort with possibly different values about the right to legal redress, suggest age will become an increasingly relevant issue for the forensic specialist in human factors. The purpose of this panel session, jointly sponsored by the Aging and Forensic Tech Groups, is to address issues related to liability, age discrimination and functional age assessment.”
p. 215-218
Herlong, David W. and Williges, Beverly H. (1988): Designing Speech Displays for Telephone Information Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 215-218.
“This study used a computer-driven telephone information system as a real-time human-computer interface to simulate applications where synthetic speech is used to access data. Subjects used a telephone keypad to search through an automated department store database to locate and transcribe specific information messages. Because speech provides a sequential and transient information display, users may have difficulty navigating through auditory databases. One issue investigated in this study was whether the alternate use of male and female voices to code different levels of the database would improve user search performance. Other issues investigated were the basic intelligibility of these male and female voices as influenced by different levels of speech rate. All factors were assessed as functions of search or transcription task performance and user preference. Analysis of transcription accuracy, user search efficiency and time, and subjective ratings revealed an overall significant effect of speech rate on all groups of measures but no significant effects for voice type or coding scheme. Results were used to recommend design guidelines for developing speech displays for telephone information systems.”
p. 219-223
Hanisch, Kathy A., Kramer, Arthur F., Hulin, Charles L. and Schumacher, Robert (1988): Novice-Expert Differences in the Cognitive Representation of System Features: Mental Models and Verbalizable Knowledge. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 219-223.
“The relationship between users' mental models and their verbalizable knowledge of a system were investigated in a field study. Trained and untrained users of a new phone system rated the similarity of use of nine phone features. Their ratings of the features were used in a multidimensional scaling technique and hierarchical cluster analysis to obtain their mental models of the system. Individuals' ratings of features on unidimensional scales about the use of the features and scores obtained on a knowledge test were reflected in their mental models. Mental models of the two novice groups' were very similar except for the perception of one feature; it was more accurately depicted in the mental model of users who attended than those who did not attend a training program. Trainers' and system designers' mental models of the phone system were evaluated to determine an "appropriate" expert mental model. A comparison of the "expert" mental model to the novices' mental models suggested that several features were inaccurately perceived by the novices. Using the discrepancies between the expert and novices' mental models to design training programs for systems is discussed. A novel way to design or redesign systems based on novices' mental models of systems is proposed.”
p. 224-228
Cushman, William H. and Derounian, Robert (1988): Design and Testing of a Facility for Two-Way Video Teleconferencing. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 224-228.
“This report describes the design and testing of a facility for two-way video teleconferencing. The design process began by developing and distributing a survey to assess the needs of potential users, to develop a "user profile" for these individuals, and to determine their willingness to consider video teleconferencing as an alternative to "in person" meetings. In addition to the survey, design data were obtained from the human factors literature, site visits, interviews with users of existing video teleconferencing rooms, and rapid prototyping and user testing of alternative designs. Construction of the facility has been completed, and over 200 users have been trained to use the equipment. User reaction has been very favorable, with a majority of users expressing a desire to use the facility again.”
p. 229-231
Paul, Lawrence M. (1988): When Lips and Voice Disagree: Determining the Practical Limits and Consequences of Visual-Auditory Asynchrony. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 229-231.
“This talk explores the limits and costs of the visual-auditory asynchrony that occurs in video teleconferencing systems using separate transmission paths for the video and audio signals. After a brief review of video teleconferencing, the special problem of asynchrony in two-path systems is developed, and the small quantity of directly applicable research is reviewed. The two human factors questions which needed to be answered were: 1) What are the "just tolerable" limits of asynchrony?, and 2) What is the cost in terms of misperceptions of living with asynchrony? The experiment had nine participants determine their "just tolerable" asynchrony limits with video first and with audio first, and their "perfect synchrony" point. The average "just tolerable" limit with video preceding audio was 104 msec with a small variability. Very surprisingly, the "just tolerable" limit with audio first was at least 160 msec. Thus, common wisdom not withstanding, it is apparently easier to live with the audio preceding the video. Research is currently underway to measure the cost of living with asynchrony. MacDonald and McGurk, 1978, found that particular combinations of spoken and seen syllables led to the perception of completely different syllables. The present research extends MacDonald and McGurk' work to word pairs with first syllables from the corresponding special syllable pairs to determine if living with asynchrony necessarily means living with misperceptions in addition to just simple "annoyance".”
p. 232-236
Casali, Sherry P., Dryden, Robert D. and Williges, Beverly H. (1988): The Effects of Recognition Accuracy and Vocabulary Size of a Speech Recognition System on Task Performance and User Acceptance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 232-236.
“The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of recognizer accuracy and vocabulary size on system performance of a speech recognition system. Subjects, ranging in age from 20 to 55 years, performed a data entry task using a simulated speech recognizer which simulated three accuracy levels and three levels of available vocabulary. Task completion times and subjective measures of acceptability were recorded. Results indicated that the accuracy level at which the recognizer was performing significantly influenced the task completion time and the user's acceptability ratings. Vocabulary size also significantly affected task completion time, however, its affect on the acceptability ratings was negligible. Older subjects in general required longer times to complete the tasks, however, they consistently rated the speech input systems more favorably than the younger subjects.”
p. 237-241
Linde, Charlotte and Shively, Robert J. (1988): Field Study of Communication and Workload in Police Helicopters: Implications for AI Cockpit Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 237-241.
“This paper reports on the work performed by civilian helicopter crews, using audio and video recordings and a variety of workload measures (heart rate and subjective ratings) obtained in a field study of public service helicopter missions. The number and frequency of communications provided a significant source of workload. This is relevant to the design of automated cockpit systems, since many designs presuppose the use of voice I/O systems. Fluency of communications (including pauses, hesitation markers, repetitions, and false starts) furnished an early indication of the effects of fatigue. Three workload measures were correlated to identify high workload segments of flight, and to suggest alternate task allocations between crew members.”
p. 247-251
Mullins, R. Timothy (1988): Causal Uncertainty and Contextual Cues in the Recognition of Environmental Sounds. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 247-251.
“Previous research has supported the hypothesis that the recognition of environmental sounds is complicated by uncertainty caused by the number of potential causes of that sound. In natural settings, contextual cues often help to specify the source of ambiguous sounds. This proposes the question of whether contextual cues can overpower auditory information to establish causal certainty of otherwise ambiguous environmental sounds. A study was conducted to examine this possibility. The results showed that contextual cues could have powerful effects on the judgement of the causal event of auditory stimuli. This result could have implications for tasks which are dependent on discrimination of auditory events. In particular, if a discrimination between two auditory events is critical, the effects of auditory context suggest that two or more possible alternatives might be indistinguishable in context and should be isolated for purposes of contrast.”
p. 25-29
Osgood, Robert K., Taylor, Kelly and McClurg, Terrence (1988): The Dynamic Seat as an Angular Motion Cuing Device. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 25-29.
“The role of advanced motion cuing devices as an alternative to platform motion simulation has been debated for several years. The dynamic seat has been shown to be an effective device for providing task-critical onset motion information on the roll axis, provided that proper attention is given to the drive laws. Since it is difficult to extrapolate the benefit derived from the dynamic seat to an operationally-realistic task environment, the dynamic seat project has initiated a series of studies that lead to motion cuing in a multi-axis aerial refueling task. In this experiment, twelve subjects controlled a compensatory tracking task in roll only, pitch only, and a combined task condition. Operator performance was evaluated between four levels of drive algorithm across axis. Significant differences in tracking performance were found both within axis and between algorithm. In addition, the rank ordering of the treatment means were consistent with previous findings in our laboratory.”
p. 252-253
Root, Robert W., Grantham, Charles, Landauer, Thomas K., Mackay, Wendy E. and McNinch, Robert (1988): Telecommunications in the 1990s: Human Factors Issues for the Information Age. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 252-253.
“Advances in technology are revolutionizing the communications industry. Optical fiber, computer-controlled switches, software-defined services, digital communications, and integrated services networks will soon deliver high-speed broadband communications and information services to individual homes and businesses. The next decade will bring impressive changes in the power, complexity and range of services offered through what we think of as the "telephone system". The technology is inexorably advancing, with or without the blessing and guidance of the human factors community. The main purpose of this panel is to call attention to the human factors implications of the "network of the future". A major aspect of this future network will be a blurring of the distinction between computation and communications due to the integration of voice and data networks (as in ISDN). This integration will have several important consequences. First, the notion of "communications" activities will be broadened to include not only synchronous human-human interaction but also asynchronous (e.g., electronic mail), multiparty, and human-machine interaction (as in information retrieval). Second, personal computers will increasingly be used and viewed as communications devices as well as computational machines. Third, "intelligent" networks will play an increasingly important role as mediators of human-human and human-machine interaction rather than acting simply as passive transport systems. These developments may be important for the practice of human factors. At the very least, they imply a merging of the concerns of telecommunications with human-computer interaction research. For example, designing interfaces for ISDN applications may require understanding how the interaction between users and communications services is affected by the representation of the application in the interface. In addition, they may call into question the role of human factors practitioners and researchers and the goals they should serve. Should we be content to design and evaluate interfaces to advanced services networks, or should we be using our knowledge of human needs and capabilities to drive the development of new applications to support.”
p. 254-258
Vicente, Kim J. and Rasmussen, Jens (1988): On Applying the Skills, Rules, Knowledge Framework to Interface Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 254-258.
“In this paper, a theoretical framework for interface design for complex systems is proposed. The approach, called Ecological Interface Design (EID), is based on the skills, rules, knowledge framework of levels of cognitive control. The fundamental goal of EID is to develop interfaces that provide the appropriate support for all three levels, but that do not force cognitive control to a higher level than the demands of the task require. The framework, consisting of a set of prescriptive design principles, is discussed, and an example of its application is presented.”
p. 259-263
Good, Michael (1988): User Interface Consistency in the DECwindows Program. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 259-263.
“A major goal of the DECwindows program is to provide a consistent, state-of-the-art user interface for workstation software. This interface extends across operating systems and many different types of application programs. Within the DECwindows program we have addressed both the technical and organizational aspects of developing consistent user interfaces across applications. Traditional methods for developing user interface consistency, such as the use of an interface style guide and toolkit, were supplemented with more innovative techniques. An exhibition and catalog of DECwindows application designs helped to develop a DECwindows school of interface design. Electronic conferencing software played an important role in facilitating communication among DECwindows contributors throughout the company. Preliminary user interviews suggest that the DECwindows interface style gives a consistent, usable feel to Digital's workstation applications.”
p. 264-266
Smith, Eric and Siochi, Antonio (1988): Software Usability: Requirements by Evaluation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 264-266.
“Recent research has established the importance of defining usability requirements as part of the total requirements for a system. Instead of deciding in an ad hoc manner whether or not a human-computer interface is usable, measurable usability requirements are established at the outset. It is common to state such requirements in an operational manner: U% of a sample of the intended user population should accomplish T% of the benchmark tasks within M minutes and with no more than E errors. The formal experiments needed to test compliance with the requirements makes this method costly. This paper presents an alternative method of specifying usability requirements currently being developed and testing on a large software project at Virginia Tech. Briefly, usability requirements are specified by having every member of the software design team and the user interface design team specify the ease of use desired for each proposed functional requirement of the system under development. The individual ratings are then compared in order to arrive at a consensus. It is this consensus that leads to the formal usability requirements which the interface must meet or exceed. As the interface is built, it is rated in the same manner as that used originally to specify the requirements. This method thus provides a structured means of specifying measurable usability requirements and a means of determining whether or not the interface satisfies those requirements. Several other benefits of this method are presented as well.”
p. 267-270
Fissel, Jim and Crea, Ron (1988): Applying Human Factors Principles to Complex Software Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 267-270.
“Over the past four years, the User Systems Engineering Group and the Industrial Systems Division of Texas Instruments have worked jointly on designing and developing a computer aided software engineering (CASE) tool to enhance the productivity of process and control engineers. This paper discusses the analysis and design procedures employed during this project and how these procedures focused on customer needs. Specifically, the areas addressed are the multidisciplinary design team, the task analysis, minimal-constraint analysis, and prototype design and iteration.”
p. 271-272
Benel, Denise C. R. (1988): Access to Electronic Office Equipment by Users with Disabilities. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 271-272.
“"...providing electronic equipment accessibility for individuals with disabilities who have special needs is an idea whose time has come" (GSA/ED Guidelines, 1987). The objective of the panel is to provide information to the Human Factors community on (1) the new GSA/ED Accessibility Guidelines with which all government procurements initiated after September 30, 1988 shall comply, and (2) selected issues related to accessibility of electronic equipment by those with disabilities.”
p. 273-277
Wolf, Catherine G. (1988): A Comparative Study of Gestural and Keyboard Interfaces. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 273-277.
“This paper presents results from two experiments which compared gestural and keyboard interfaces to a spreadsheet program. This is the first quantitative comparison of these two types of interfaces known to the author. The gestural interface employed gestures (hand-drawn marks such as carets or brackets) for commands, and handwriting as input techniques. In one configuration, the input/output hardware consisted of a transparent digitizing tablet mounted on top of an LCD which allowed the user to interact with the program by writing on the tablet with a stylus. The experiments found that participants were faster with the gestural interface. Specifically, subjects performed the operations in about 72% of the time taken with the keyboard. In addition, there was a preference for the gestural interface over the keyboard interface. These findings are explained in terms of the fewer number of movements required to carry out an operation with the gestural interface, the greater ease of remembering gestural commands, and the benefits of performing operations directly on objects of interest.”
p. 278
Root, Robert W. and Canby, Annette (1988): There's More to Direct Manipulation than Meets the Eye. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 278.
“The term "direct manipulation" (or DM) often evokes images of interfaces which are intuitive, obvious, and easy to learn. We conducted an experiment to determine whether subjects could learn to use a DM interface without instruction, i.e., whether they could learn the interface syntax on their own merely by inspection and exploration of the interface. The research vehicle was a prototype DM application designed to allow end users to customize a telecommunications application. Three variations of the interface were created by manipulating elements of the DM syntax, specifically, moded operations and rules about selecting objects before acting on them. Subjects carried out a set of five tasks in the presence of an experimenter, who was allowed to provide structured help when the subject could not make further progress. Results indicated that the syntax manipulations affected both the number and type of user errors and the amount of help needed to complete the tasks: the use of modes and selection rules significantly interfered with learning, and only four subjects out of thirty were able to perform the complete set of tasks without experimenter assistance. We also found, however, that more than half of the errors made by subjects were not directly related to syntax manipulations. These errors appear to stem more from conceptual problems, i.e., mismatches between the user's developing model of the interface and the model instantiated by the interface designer in the rules of interaction. These conceptual problems were observed across syntax manipulations and represent a significant portion of user's difficulties in learning the interface. Thus, our results shed light on the relationship between interface syntax, learning and usability in the DM paradigm, but they also point out the need for a cognitive account of the processes by which users acquire knowledge of interface characteristics and how that knowledge is related to interface design elements.”
p. 279-283
Gould, John D., Boies, Stephen J., Meluson, Mia, Rasamny, Marwan and Vosburgh, Ann Marie (1988): Empirical Evaluation of Entry and Selection Methods for Specifying Dates. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 279-283.
“Experienced and inexperienced computer users used seven different interaction methods to specify dates of events. Key results were that the three entry methods were faster, more accurate, and preferred over the four selection methods -- by both experienced and inexperienced computer users. The rank order of performance with these methods was about the same for both groups. Number of keystrokes required by each method was a good predictor of performance time. For selection tasks, decomposing them into separate fields is advisable.”
p. 284-287
Greene, Sharon L., Gould, John D., Boies, Stephen J., Meluson, Antonia and Rasamny, Marwan (1988): Entry-Based versus Selection-Based Interaction Methods. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 284-287.
“Five different human-computer interaction techniques were studied to determine the relative advantages of entry-based and selection-based methods. Gould, Boies, Meluson, Rasamny, and Vosburgh (1988), found that entry techniques aided by either automatic or requested string completion, were superior to various selection-based techniques. This study examines unaided as well as aided entry techniques, and compares them to selection-based methods. Variations in spelling difficulty and database size were studied for their effect on user performance and preferences. The main results were that automatic string completion was the fastest method and selection techniques were better than unaided entry techniques, especially for hard-to-spell words. This was particularly true for computer-inexperienced participants. The database size had its main influence on performance with the selection techniques. In the selection and aided-entry methods there was a strong correlation between the observed keystroke times and the minimum number of keystrokes required by a task.”
p. 288-290
Brown, Tony J., Poock, Gary K., Aucella, Arlene F., Nusbaum, Howard C. and McCauley, Michael E. (1988): Human Factor Assessment of Automatic Speech Recognition System Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 288-290.
“Various methodologies have been proposed and implemented for the assessment of user performance with automatic speech recognition systems. Many human factors specialists are confronted with the problem of assessment and they need some answers. It is hoped that by concentrating on the human performance issue, with regard to speech recognition systems, some of the issues of assessment can eventually be resolved.”
p. 291-295
Desaulniers, David R., Gillan, Douglas J. and Rudisill, Marianne (1988): The Effects of Format in Computer-Based Procedure Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 291-295.
“Two experiments were conducted to investigate display variables likely to influence the effectiveness of computer-based procedure displays. In Experiment 1, procedures were presented in three formats, Text, Extended-Test, and Flowchart. Text and Extended-Text are structured prose formats which differ in the spatial density of presentation. The Flowchart format differs from the Text format in both syntax and spatial representation. Subjects were required to use the procedures to diagnose a hypothetical system anomaly. The results indicate that performance was most accurate with the Flowchart format. Although overall completion times did not differ significantly across formats, the Flowchart format required significantly less time for step implementation. In Experiment 2, procedure window size was varied (6-line, 12-line, and 24-line) in addition to procedure format. In the six line window condition, Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1. Procedures in the Flowchart format were completed with greater accuracy than procedures in either of the test formats. As predicted, completion times for Flowchart procedures decreased with increasing window size; however, accuracy of performance decreased substantially. Implications for the design of computer-based procedure displays are discussed.”
p. 296-300
Gordon, Sallie E., Gustavel, Jill, Moore, Jana and Hankey, Jon (1988): The Effects of Hypertext on Reader Knowledge Representation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 296-300.
“The goal of this research was to evaluate the effects of hypertext as an intra-document text format. Subjects read two articles on a color VDT, one in linear and one in hypertext format. Half of the subjects read general interest articles with instructions for casual reading and the other half read technical articles with instructions to learn the material. Afterward, subjects were given free recall tests, question probe tests, and a preference questionnaire. Results indicated that for both types of article, the linear format resulted in greater memory for the basic ideas contained in the articles. Also, for the general interest articles, subjects reading in linear format assimilated more of the macro-structure than subjects reading in the hypertext format. Consistent with these findings, a majority of the subjects expressed a preference for the linear format and perceived it as requiring less mental effort than reading hypertext. These results suggest that, at least under some circumstances, hypertext can interfere with normal cognitive processes.”
p. 30-34
Wong, Clifford K. and Lyman, John (1988): American and Japanese Control-Display Stereotypes: Possible Implications for Design of Space Station Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 30-34.
“This study examined the stimulus-response stereotypes of American (United States citizens) and Japanese (Japanese citizens) subjects on the issue of control-display arrangements. Three questions were investigated. First, do Japanese and Americans operators adhere to the same compatibility principles, e.g., clockwise-for-increase, for certain configurations? Second, do the operators show similar or different responses to certain configurations? Third, are there arrangements in which both populations show strong or weak stimulus-response stereotypes? A paper and pencil test that contained 24 different control-display configurations was administered to 58 American subjects and 58 Japanese subjects, all of whom were right-handed. Out of the 24 configurations, only one elicited similar and statistically significant response stereotypes from American and Japanese subjects. The arrangement that did so emphasized that three compatibility principles (clockwise-for-increase, nearness of control-cursor relation, and scale-side) be in agreement with each other. The results provide initial, albeit speculative, guidelines for the design of control-display systems in NASA's international space station. Since multicultural crews will inhabit the space station for long duration missions, control-display designs which elicit common, consistent, and extremely strong control-movement stereotypes from different cultural populations is a necessity.”
p. 301-305
Peters, Robert D., Yastrop, Gloria T. and Boehm-Davis, Deborah A. (1988): Predicting Information Retrieval Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 301-305.
“This research examined the effects two different cognitive individual differences (perceptual speed and spatial scanning) on information retrieval performance under two matched and two mismatched database format/query conditions. A graphic and a tabular form of an airline database were constructed, along with questions that required users to search through the database to determine the correct response. Two types of questions were designed -- graphic and tabular. The data indicate that users are faster when the format of the information in the database matches the type of information needed to predictive of performance in the matched and mismatched conditions. Recommendations for database design are presented.”
p. 306-307
Glenn, Bernice T. (1988): Hypermedia and Interfaces: Design and Evaluation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 306-307.
“Although hypertext and hypermedia have been discussed for a number of years, it is only recently that such systems have become generally available to interface designers. A user base of thousands exists at the present time, the most widely used system being HyperCard, from Apple. Hypermedia systems differ from traditional software systems in the complexity of its domains of access, its reliance on visual presentation, and in the use of sound. These differences are beginning to revise previously held ideas and guidelines about the processes of designing and evaluating software interfaces. This session presents some of the approaches to coming to grips with this problem... a problem that will continue to grow as technological advances continue in the development of readily available hypermedia software on inexpensive hardware platforms.”
p. 308-312
Nicol, Anne (1988): Interface Design for Hyperdata: Models, Maps and Cues. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 308-312.
“Now that large stores of information in a variety of media can truly be at our fingertips, how do we know what we have and how to get at it? Hypermedia databases present new challenges to interface designers whose goals are to make such databases truly accessible and easy to use. In this paper, using HyperCard (1987) as an example, I discuss some of the user interface issues that arose as we observed children and adults interacting with computerized hypermedia environments. And I describe some design principles and examples that have emerged from our work in the Human Interface Group at Apple Computer, Inc.”
p. 313-317
Lacy, Richard M., Chignell, Mark and Kinnell, Susan K. (1988): Authoring Hypermedia for Computer Based Instruction. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 313-317.
“Recent recognition of the importance of writing and critical thinking skills, both within and beyond the scope of the university, has focused attention on the role of the research paper in the composition course. However attempts to teach the research paper, for the most part, have been unsuccessful. What is needed is a new model for the research paper which can be incorporated into the composition course. At USC we have developed such a model in the Project Jefferson interface. In this paper we discuss our experience in using the Project Jefferson model to author hypermedia based curricular tools and discuss issues in authoring hypermedia structures based on that experience. We report the results of structured interviews carried out with the personnel who were responsible for authoring the hypertext and index for Project Jefferson. We also interpret features of the authoring process in terms of their impact on the resulting compatibility between software structures and student cognitive structures, as observed in two related studies (Teshiba and Chignell, 1988; Valdez, Chignell, and Kinnel, 1988). The version of the Project Jefferson prototype interface used in this research is an adaptation of HyperCard to teach freshman students how to do research within the framework of a writing assignment. It is a self-contained research tool which assists in the development of skills to do research in the real world. Its overall conceptual metaphor is that of an electronic notebook with which students can gain access to a paper assignment on the US Constitution; read a dictionary or encyclopedia for background information on Constitutional issues, and download key ideas to their electronic notebook; search a database of bibliographic information, taking notes if need be, or simply downloading citations; and finally dumping all this information into a text file as the raw materials of a research paper. In this paper we discuss our experience in using the Project Jefferson model to author hypermedia based curricular tools and discuss general issues in authoring hypermedia structures based on that experience.”
p. 318-322
Valdez, Felix, Chignell, Mark and Glenn, Bernice (1988): Browsing Models for Hypermedia Databases. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 318-322.
“Hypertext can be simply defined as the creation and representation of links between discrete pieces of data. When this data can be graphics, or sound, as well as text or numbers, the resulting structure is referred to as hypermedia. The strengths of hypermedia arise from its flexibility in storing and retrieving knowledge. Any piece of information, whether it be text, graphics, sound, numerical data, etc., can be linked to any other piece of information. In many ways, the problems of hypermedia stem from the very flexibility that is its chief advantage and justification. It is difficult to maintain a sense of where things are in a relatively unstructured network of information. While the associative nature of hypermedia increases the availability of large amounts of diverse information, this very diversity makes it easy for information and users to get lost. Hypermedia exacerbates the problem of getting "lost in information space" by providing a complex associative structure that can be traversed, but not fully visualized. Information gets lost because it becomes difficult to organize and tag effectively, while users get lost as they lose sense of where they are in the hypermedia. Getting lost or disoriented occurs when one doesn't know where one is. Solutions to the problem of disorientation in hypermedia appear to fall into two general classes. First, one can create maps or browsers that allows users to determine where they are in terms of the overall network, or regions thereof. Second, one can create tags, markers or milestones which represent familiar locations, much as a lighthouse signals location in the middle of a foggy night. This paper reports basic research on the identification of landmarks in a hypermedia application.”
p. 323-327
Teshiba, Kenneth and Chignell, Mark (1988): Development of a User Model Evaluation Technique for Hypermedia Based Interfaces. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 323-327.
“The model underlying the interface and its interpretation by the user is a key element of successful interface usage (Chignell and Hancock, 1986; Norman, 1986). Some of the critical characteristics of the system model that determine its effectiveness are: 1) the proximity between the user's model and the system model, 2) how well the system model is matched to its application, and 3) how easily the system model lends itself to navigation through the interface. Several interesting issues arise from studying these system model characteristics. One of these is how the system model can be built in order to meet the needs of all users. Ideally, a system model must be flexible to meet the requirements of users from varied knowledge bases and computing experience, yet must be specific enough to perform its function in an efficient manner. Evaluation of human computer interfaces has traditionally been limited to determining the effectiveness of linear text and graphics. Evaluation tools have generally been formulated as checklists which assess predominantly static characteristics of interfaces either through user (e.g. Chin, Diehl, and Norman, 1988) or expert evaluation (Hamel and Clark, 1986). The use of a hypermedia interface, with its many nested levels and pathways, may produce varied user models. Thus it is particularly important to evaluate a user's perceived system model versus the actual system model in order to determine the effectiveness and deficiencies of the interface when it involves a hypermedia application. Traditional evaluation techniques include user evaluation and feedback, analysis of user learning, analysis of user interface usage patterns. However, modifications to these traditional methods must be considered to meet the different challenges that a hypermedia interface presents. Methods of evaluation are needed for hypermedia, and for other applications where the human factors characteristics of the interface are not obvious from an assessment of its static characteristics. Through comparison of the user's perceived system model versus the actual system model it is possible to evaluate the effectiveness of a hypermedia interface in large part, and identify obvious deficiencies. The interface designer can then determine why idiosyncratic or inappropriate user models occurred and then alter the interface or user thinking (through training or online help) to improve the interface. This paper discusses two experiments carried out at the University of Southern California using the Jefferson prototype interface (a computer assisted assignment/online retrieval tool). These experiments use a novel method of evaluating the proximity between student models of the interface and the intended system model through the comparison of hierarchies built by students before and after using the software.”
p. 328-329
Mills, Carol Bergfeld, Comstock, Elizabeth M., Dearlove, Judith E., Redish, Janice C., Wichansky, Anna, Celline, Joe and Gould, John D. (1988): Development of Documentation in Real Time. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 328-329.
“The primary purpose of this panel is to exchange information on common practices and procedures in the development of documentation for computer products (e.g. user manuals). This topic should be of great interest for anyone concerned with the development of usable computer products since documentation is a major part of the interface for most of these products. Yet documentation frequently receives very little or "last minute" attention from developers and producers. As a result, it is often confusing and difficult to use. The goal of this panel is to discuss problems encountered in developing documentation and what can be done to overcome some of those difficulties. The focus of the panel will be the problems of dealing with limited time and resources, as well as the relationships between different development groups (writers, hardware developers, software developers, and human factor specialists), and the decision-making process.”
p. 330-334
Reaux, Ray A. and Williges, Robert C. (1988): Effects of Level of Abstraction and Presentation Media on Usability of User-System Interface Guidelines. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 330-334.
“User-system interface (USI) guidelines are emerging as a tool for user interface design. The roles of levels of abstraction (concrete and abstract) and of guideline presentation medium (hard copy or on-line) on detection of USI guidelines violations in user-system interface evaluation were investigated. Overall, less than 50% of the guideline violations were detected by software engineers. Abstract guideline violations were more difficult to detect than concrete guideline violations, and on-line presentation resulted in relatively higher guideline usage during evaluation than hard copy presentation. It was concluded that improvements in USI guideline form and media are required to make guidelines a more useful USI design tool.”
p. 335-339
Baker, Clifford, Eike, David R., Malone, Thomas B. and Peterson, Larry (1988): Update of DoD-HDBK-761: 'Human Engineering Guidelines for Management Information Systems'. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 335-339.
“DoD-HDBK-761 "Human Engineering Guidelines for Management Information Systems" was extensively updated and revised to reflect 1) significant changes in computing technology, including user interface techniques and display technology, and 2) recent user computer interface (UCI) design literature. The document was updated based on literature reviews, mail-out surveys of UCI designers and users, and interactive computer interviews (using question and answer dialog). The updated document contains two main sections. The first presents a general process for conducting UCI analysis, design, development, and evaluation activities. These activities include; conduct of system functions analysis, function allocation, user task analysis, user surveys, use of UCI prototypes, and product testing. The second section contains over 1000 human engineering guideline statements which can be applied to the detailed design of UCIs. The guideline section addresses dialog design, computer control, data entry and display, job performance aiding, expert systems interface design, and data communication and protection. This paper discusses the content and organization of the document.”
p. 340
Hirsch, Richard S. (1988): Where Human Factors May be Headed: A Personal View. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. p. 340.
“Following a brief review of how the human factors community achieved its present focus and circumstances, the discussion deals with what future preoccupations and opportunities may face human factors practitioners, such as computer software and documentation evaluations, the development of standards and guidelines, the avoidance of exposure to product liability cases, and the presentation of legislative testimony, among other concerns and challenges. Also examined are the roles that human factors funding and organizational structures may play in facilitating or inhibiting the effectiveness of human factors research and acceptance of the results obtained.”
p. 341-343
Williams, James R. (1988): The Effects of Case and Spacing on Menu Option Search Time. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 341-343.
“The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of spacing and case (use of upper- or lowercase letters) on search time for menus presented on a contemporary high resolution PC display. Twenty Bellcore staff members, all experienced computer users, were presented two sets of four menus each (representing the combinations of case and spacing). Search time was recorded and participants were asked for their preferences among the four menu styles. Analysis of variance results indicated that double-spacing yielded significantly shorter search times in both menu sets. Although case was significant only for the first menu set, a significant case by spacing interaction for the second set indicated that double-spacing had more effect on search time for uppercase options than for lowercase options. Preference data also indicated that 85% of the participants preferred the double-spaced menus.”
p. 344-346
Bayerl, Jeanne P., Millen, David R. and Lewis, Steven H. (1988): Consistent Layout of Function Keys and Screen Labels Speeds User Responses. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 344-346.
“Personal-computer applications-software often requires people to navigate and select options using their keyboard's function keys where context-dependent meanings for these keys are assigned by guides or menus labeled on the screen. The physical layout of function keys on standard PC-compatible keyboards differs from the most common layouts of screen labels. This study examined user performance consequences of this simple, spatial, inconsistency. In a simulated order entry task, 36 participants each completed 240 trials, 40 with each of six different combinations of two keyboards and three screen guides with different spatial arrangements of function keys and screen labeling. One keyboard used the standard 5x2 function key pad and one used a single horizontal row of function keys; the screen guides were either a horizontal row, a vertical list, or a grid consistent with the standard key pad. We collected measures of response time, errors, and user preferences. Analysis of errors showed no reliable results. Analysis of response times showed several significant effects. Responses were faster with the two combinations of key pad and screen-guide layouts that were spatially consistent than with the four inconsistent layouts. Response times were also faster with the keyboard with horizontal function keys than with the standard layout, and slower with the vertical screen guide than with either of the other two guides. Over 80% of the participants thought the task was easiest when the screen guide matched the function key layout.”
p. 347-351
Shurtleff, Mark S., Jenkins, Joseph A. and Sams, Michelle R. (1988): Deriving Menu Structures through Modal Block Clustering: A Promising Alternative to Hierarchical Techniques. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 347-351.
“Modal block clustering (MBC) is proposed as an approach more suited to the derivation of menu structures than hierarchical clustering techniques. Problems with the application of hierarchical techniques and pairwise similarity ratings (PWSR) from which the clusters are derived are discussed. MBC defines clusters based on the pattern of common command attributes and provides an objective way to determine the composition and number of menu panels to include in a menu structure. The method also objectively defines command redundancy for the menu panels. The method of MBC was applied to the 97 commands that comprise the CMS operating system resulting in 17 menu categories. The menu categories were used to design a help menu system. The MBC procedure provides a viable methodology for complex systems, such as CMS, which derive increased functionality from numerous command options. System designers can fruitfully and efficiently apply this methodology both to current systems and to proposed systems for which there are no expert users.”
p. 35-39
Roebuck, John A.,