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Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting
Time and place:
1994
Series:
This is a preferred venue for people like Christopher D. Wickens, Michael S. Wogalter, Colin G. Drury, Thomas B. Malone, and Robert S. Kennedy. Part of the The Human Factors Society Annual Meeting conference series.
Conf. description:
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting is the annual conference of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
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is coming up
Sep27
27 Sep 2010 in San Francisco, CaliforniaPublisher:
References from this conference (1994)
The following articles are from "Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting":
Articles
Bogner, Marilyn Sue (1994): Advanced Medical Instrumentation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. .
p. 1-5
Solz, Thomas J., Reising, John M., Liggett, Kristen K., Lohmeyer, Troy and Hartsock, David C. (1994): The Use of Aiding Techniques and Varying Depth Volumes to Designate Targets in 3-D Space. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1-5.
“The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a hand tracker to designate targets using a three-dimensional (3-D) map. Three variables were manipulated: 1) hand tracker active volume, 2) aiding technique, and 3) target density. There were three different volumes (large, medium and small) in which the hand tracker operated. Each volume represented cockpit space in which hand tracker movements correlated to cursor movements on the screen. Two aiding techniques were referred to as contact aiding and proximity aiding. Contact aiding consisted of a color shade change to the target when the cursor penetrated the target volume. Proximity aiding consisted of an algorithm that selected the target closest to the cursor and thus changed its color shade. Two target densities, high (16 targets) and low (8 targets), were used. Speed and accuracy were measured in the designation of targets using a hand tracker. Results showed that proximity aiding in the medium volume space yielded the best performance.”
p. 100
Shepherd, William T. (1994): Human Factors and Ergonomics in Maintenance and Inspection. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 100.
“In 1991 the National Plan for Aviation Human Factors was published. The plan proposed a variety of research priorities for the nation's aviation industry and government entities. The FAA Office of Aviation Medicine has been conducting a research program to address the Aviation Maintenance topics identified as significant in the National Plan. The resultant research program has been recognized as the most significant maintenance-oriented human factors study in the world.”
p. 1003-1007
Dresel, K. Michael and Pepitone, David D. T. (1994): What We Do with Human Factors Data and Theory: A Flight Deck Design Philosophy for the High-Speed Civil Transport Aircraft. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1003-1007.
“This paper reports on the results and lessons learned from constructing a design philosophy for a new aircraft. The High Speed Civil Transport aircraft is the next-generation supersonic transport, planned for initial operating capability in 2005. Current objectives for the aircraft include cruise speeds of Mach 2.4, ability to take off and land in low visibility, and restricted forward vision. These objectives necessitate consideration of major changes in some of the functions currently allocated to the human flight crew. An explicit design philosophy was defined as the first step in ensuring that system development proceeded with clear emphasis on supporting the human operators in accomplishing the goals of transporting their passengers and cargo safely, comfortably, efficiently and on schedule. This paper discusses the development and details of the integrated flight deck design philosophy that will be used to guide the development of a High Speed Civil Transport flight deck. The paper describes * the goals, scope and benefits of the flight deck design philosophy; * the effect on the current system development process; * the method used to produce the design philosophy; * examples of the philosophy and guideline statements, with rationale; and finally, suggestions for improving the transfer of basic and applied research into the system design process.”
p. 1008-1012
O'Hara, John M. (1994): Evaluation of Complex Human-Machine Systems Using HFE Guidelines. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1008-1012.
“The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of human factors engineering (HFE) guidelines in the evaluation of complex human-machine systems, such as advanced nuclear power plants. Advanced control rooms will utilize human-system interface (HSI) technologies that can have significant implications for plant safety in that they will affect the ways in which plant personnel interact with the system. In order to protect public health and safety, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission reviews the HFE aspects of plant HSIs to ensure that they are designed to HFE principles and that operator performance and reliability are appropriately supported. Evaluations using HFE guidelines are an important part of the overall review methodology. The Advanced HSI Design Review Guideline (DRG) was developed to provide these review criteria. This paper will address (1) the issues associated with guideline-based evaluations, (2) DRG development and validation, and (3) the DRG review procedures.”
p. 101-105
Maddox, Michael E. (1994): Introducing a Practical Human Factors Guide into the Aviation Maintenance Environment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 101-105.
“A safe and efficient air travel system depends on three elements; design, operation, and maintenance. The Human Factors profession essentially began and matured in the aviation environment. The aircraft cockpit and the skills involved in piloting have been the subjects of more human factors research than any other single topic. Likewise, the topic of aircraft design has been the beneficiary of many of the tools and procedures developed to embed human capabilities into products. The third component, maintenance, seems to receive attention only when it is shown to be a contributing factor in a mishap. In an effort to embed proper human factors principles in the aircraft maintenance environment, Congress, through the Federal Aviation Administration Office of Aviation Medicine (OAM), has mandated that more emphasis be placed on human factors in maintenance operations. A major product of this initiative is a Human Factors Guide, being developed to provide practical, useful, and usable guidance to supervisors and planners in the aviation maintenance industry. This paper describes the goals, form, and content of the new Human Factors Guide.”
p. 1013-1017
Knee, H. E., Spelt, P. F., Houser, M. M. and Hill, W. E. (1994): Operator Role Definition: An Initial Step in the Human Factors Engineering Design of the Advanced Neutron Source (ANS). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1013-1017.
“The Advanced Neutron Source (ANS) is a new basic and applied research facility sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy that is proposed for construction. It will provide neutron beams for measurements and experiments in the fields of materials science and engineering, biology, chemistry, materials analysis, and nuclear science. The facility will provide a useful neutron beam flux that is at least five times more than is available at the world's best existing facilities. It will also provide world-class facilities for isotopes production, materials irradiation testing, materials analysis, and the production of positrons. ANS will be unique in the United States in the extent to which human factors engineering (HFE) principles will be included in its design and construction. Initial HFE accomplishments include the development of a functional analysis, an operating philosophy, and a program plan. In fiscal year 1994, HFE activities are focusing on the role of the ANS control room reactor operator (RO). An operator-centered control room model was used in conjunction with information gathered from existing ANS system design descriptions and other literature to define RO responsibilities. From this list, a survey instrument was developed and administered to ANS design engineers, operations management personnel at Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR), and HFIR ROs to detail the nature of the RO position. Initial results indicated that the RO should function as a high-level system supervisor with considerable monitoring, verification, and communication responsibilities. The relatively high level of control automation has resulted in a reshaping of the RO's traditional safety and investment protection roles.”
p. 1018-1022
Lee, John D. and Raby, Mireille (1994): Network Analysis as a Technique to Guide the Task Analysis of ATIS/CVO. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1018-1022.
“Applications of Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) and Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO) include technology ranging from simple sensors and alarms to complex combinations of databases and displays. This range of technology will impose a variety of task demands on drivers, and these demands need to be cataloged. Without a means of focusing the task analysis describing these systems, a complete description of all possible interactions among the potential functions of ATIS/CVO systems would be intractable. To address this problem, we have adopted network analysis techniques from sociological and anthropological studies of social groups as a tool to examine complex systems and to guide a task analysis. Network analysis provides a quantitative analysis of information flows that link system functions that can focus a task analysis on important functions and critical interactions between these functions. This paper describes measures of centrality and clusters and how these measures can guide any complex task analysis in the same way it focused the task analysis of ATIS/CVO systems.”
p. 1023-1027
DeVries, Michael J. and Gordon, Sallie E. (1994): Estimating Cognitive Complexity and the Need for Cognitive Task Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1023-1027.
“Because an increasing number of systems are being developed to support complex cognitive functioning, task analysis is commonly being augmented wills cognitive task analysis, which identifies cognitive processes, knowledge, and mental models relevant to task performance. Cognitive task analysis tends to be lengthy and time-consuming, so designers frequently ask how they might know if it is actually necessary for a specific project. In this paper, we assume that much of the need for cognitive task analysis depends on the inherent "cognitive complexity of the task. We present a model of cognitive complexity, and show how it was used to develop a computer-based tool for estimating relative cognitive complexity for a set of tasks. The tool, Cog-C, elicits task and subtask hierarchies, then guides the user in making relatively simple estimates on a number of scales. The tool calculates and displays the relative cognitive complexity scores for each task, along with subscores of cognitive complexity for different types of knowledge. Usability and reliability were evaluated in multiple domains, showing that the tool is relatively easy to use, reliable, and well-accepted.”
p. 1028-1032
Brown, Clifford E., Selvaraj, Jonathan A., Zaff, Brian S., McNeese, Michael D. and Whitaker, Randall D. (1994): An Integrative Bargaining Paradigm for Investigating Multidisciplinary Design Trade-Offs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1028-1032.
“In design teams, decision making entails negotiation among parties pursuing common goals with potentially divergent interests and objectives (Bucciarelli, 1988). In multidisciplinary design teams, these parties negotiate from perspectives further biased by their respective backgrounds, expertise, and roles. System design can be improved if we better understand how technical data are communicated and assimilated, how mutually advantageous tradeoffs are discovered, and how the managing of design tradeoffs can best be supported. As part of our larger research effort in Collaborative Design Technology, we are examining the processes by which integrative design tradeoffs are realized, in preparation for enhancing these processes through data visualization and communication tools facilitating mutual understanding and decision making. This initial report describes our work to date in creating and validating an experimental paradigm to serve as a testbed for subsequent studies of multidisciplinary design practice. This paper describes the paradigm and the initial attempts to demonstrate its ecological validity. This initial validation effort involved a comparison of novices and experts in the field of design and their performance on the design decision making task. We found that experts performed better than novices on the design task, which provided initial validation support for the experimental paradigm.”
p. 1033-1037
Winsch, Beverly J., Atwood, Nancy K. and Quinkert, Kathleen A. (1994): Using a Distributed Interactive Simulation Environment to Investigate Machine Interface and Training Requirements. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1033-1037.
“In anticipation of changes brought about by increasingly powerful technologies and systems, the Combat Vehicle Command and Control (CVCC) program evaluated the use of an automated command and control (C2) system developed for the Abrams series tank. The system included a prototype C2 device with map display, navigation and digital messaging capabilities, an automated target acquisition system, and digital workstations in a Tactical Operations Center. Results yield a number of recommendations and represent the culmination of a five-year research program which has successfully utilized an iterative approach to investigate training and system design requirements for the prototype CVCC system. Data are discussed within the context of the need for design and training efforts aimed at alleviating the growing information management requirements faced by users of emerging C2 technologies.”
p. 1038-1042
Connelly, Edward M. (1994): Automated Data Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1038-1042.
“Automated Data Analysis (ADA) is a powerful, flexible analysis tool for systematically building performance determinants. ADA is designed to assist analysts in assessing the linkage from system processes to outcomes. It allows for or accounts for the varying conditions during performances and permits formation of complex analyses which extract relevant information from multiple variables while ignoring irrelevant data from the data base. In particular, ADA permits: 1. Focus on selected portions of the performance space, 2. Characterization of the system processes and examination of the relationship between system processes and outcomes, 3. Building analysis variables which can be made simple or as complex as necessary as knowledge of the importance of system processes to outcomes is obtained, and 4. Use of powerful restructured analysis tools.”
p. 1043-1047
Pavlick, Timothy J., Benel, Denise, Horst, Richard, Eaton, Susan and Gregory, Steven (1994): Usability Tools and Ease of Use: Technological Misfits?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1043-1047.
“Often times usability professionals employ methods and tools that, in themselves, are not very usable. As technology proliferates through a more diverse user population, usability methods must be adapted to accommodate more general usage by this growing and diverse population. This paper describes a usability testing center life-cycle plan containing design, implementation and integration which incorporates usability into the design of the center equipment and its test conduct procedures document. The IRS's vision of system developers forming 'visiting test teams' which rotate through the center, necessitated that the center be generally accessible. A touch screen equipment interface allowed the presentation of a common interaction style for all audio/video recording equipment in the usability center. Likewise, an integrated behavioral logging/video editing facility enabled quick production of video highlights tapes. The contractor also provided three day usability engineering and testing training courses for visiting test teams as a means of making the process more accessible. Following training, preliminary tests were conducted in the Usability Center which allowed an opportunity to usability test the center and procedures. Based on reports that documented the results of these preliminary tests, significant changes to the test conduct procedures, center and equipment layout made the method more accessible to visiting test teams. The conclusion of the effort resulted in a certification plan for the government to take over full usability testing operations at the lab. The end result was acceptance and understanding, by system developers, of the usability process and its value to system design.”
p. 1048-1051
Spelt, Philip F. and Jones, Sammy L. (1994): Operator-Centered Control of a Semi-Autonomous Industrial Telerobot. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1048-1051.
“This paper presents work done by Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Remotec, Inc., to develop a new operator-centered control system for Remotec's Andros telerobot. Andros robots are presently used by numerous electric utilities, the armed forces, and numerous law enforcement agencies to perform tasks which are hazardous for human operators. This project has automated task components and enhanced the video graphics display of the robot's position in the environment to significantly reduce operator workload. The procedure of automating a telerobot requires the addition of computer power to the robot, along with a variety of sensors and encoders to provide information about the robot's performance in and relationship to its environment. The resulting vehicle serves as a platform for research on strategies to integrate automated tasks with those performed by a human operator. The addition of these capabilities will greatly enhance the safety and efficiency of performance in hazardous environments.”
p. 1052-1056
Wise, John A., Hopkin, V. David, Stager, Paul and Harwood, Kelly (1994): Human Factors Certification of Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1052-1056.
“There is growing interest in the regulatory organizations (e.g., FAA, ICAO) to establish human factors based certification procedures for aviation technologies. This panel will discuss some of the issues debated during an international workshop on human factors certification of aviation technologies.”
p. 1057-1061
Wheeler, William A., Lee, John D., Raby, Mireille, Kinghorn, Rhonda A., Bittner, Alvah C. and McCallum, Marvin C. (1994): Predicting Driver Behavior Using Advanced Traveler Information Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1057-1061.
“As a part of the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS), Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) will offer tomorrow's drivers significantly expanded capabilities for getting where they want to go safely and efficiently. Vehicle-based navigation systems combined with information on highway conditions and services have the potential for improving driver performance. Though ATIS may offer considerable advantages, the system design must be consistent with the primary tasks of controlling and operating the vehicle. This paper describes an attempt to identify the likely interaction between what a driver must do to operate the vehicle safely while at the same time using the various ATIS systems. As such, it is an attempt to visualize what driving with these advanced systems will be like and to translate that vision into standard human factors task analytic techniques. Though a broad range of ATIS systems and functions were addressed in this project, this paper will address the macro-level task analyses that resulted from the examination of 165 tasks related to ATIS use.”
p. 106-110
Drury, Colin G. (1994): Ergonomics on the Hangar Floor: Structuring the Intervention Process. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 106-110.
“A methodology is demonstrated which systematically interpreted aircraft inspection tasks in human factors terms, performed projects where human / system mismatches were found, and re-integrated the project findings to provide for comprehensive intervention. A generic function description was first used to structure extensive hangar-floor observations and analysis, and potential mismatches determined. Projects were completed for each function, for example redesigned workcards for the Initiate function and lighting studies for the Search function. Integrative techniques developed were a computer-based audit program to evaluate human factors in aircraft inspection tasks, and a systematic implementation technique based on human factors teams in the hangar.”
p. 1062-1066
Hanowski, Richard J., Kantowitz, Susan C. and Kantowitz, Barry H. (1994): Driver Acceptance of Unreliable Route Guidance Information. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1062-1066.
“Human factors research can be used to design safe and efficient Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) that are easy to use (Kantowitz, Becker, & Barlow, 1993). This research used the Battelle Route Guidance Simulator (RGS) to examine two important issues related to driver behavior and acceptance of ATIS technology: (1) the effect of route familiarity on ATIS use and acceptance and (2) the level of information accuracy needed for an ATIS to be accepted and considered useful. The RGS included two 486 computers that provided drivers with real-time information and traffic reports. Drivers used a touch screen to select routes on one computer monitor and watched the results of their selection (i.e., real-time video of the traffic) on a second computer monitor. Drivers could use the system to obtain information about the traffic conditions on any link before traversing a route. In this experiment, subjects were exposed to four experimental conditions involving manipulation of the driver's familiarity with the route and the reliability of the traffic information”
p. 1067-1071
Kinghorn, Rhonda A., Bittner, Alvah C. and Kantowitz, Barry H. (1994): Identification of Desired System Features in an Advanced Traveler Information System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1067-1071.
“This study evaluated consumer acceptance of variations of a currently available Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS). We also wanted to determine if video demonstration was sufficient for observers to grasp the fundamentals of ATIS devices. A total of 109 licensed drivers viewed two videotaped demonstrations of TravTek, and then completed questionnaires. Principal Factor Analyses resulted in patterns of desired features and other composite variables used in regression analyses. Basic map features (e.g., vehicle position/location, outline of route) and voice features were the two dominant feature patterns. Other composite variables included understanding of the system capabilities, trust, self-confidence, tolerance of system errors, demonstration fidelity and attention. Results of the regression analyses indicated that different variables were significant predictors of each pattern of desired features.”
p. 1072-1076
Mollenhauer, Michael A., Lee, Jaesik, Cho, Ken, Hulse, Melissa C. and Dingus, Thomas A. (1994): The Effects of Sensory Modality and Information Priority on In-Vehicle Signing and Information Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1072-1076.
“During this study, subjects drove an interactive driving simulator and were presented road sign information from a visual dash-mounted LCD display or from digitized auditory voice. information priority was also manipulated in that subjects received all sign information typically present in the roadway environment, or only "filtered" high priority regulatory and notification information. The effects of display type and filtering on information recall, driver performance, and driver preferences were measured. The results indicate that presenting information in an auditory mode results in a higher level of road sign information recall, but also decreases the subjects' driving performance when compared to a visual display. Subjects were also able to recall more road sign information and drove at a higher level of performance during the filtered conditions. Subjects rated auditory information as more distracting than visual information.”
p. 1077-1079
Meister, David, Enderwick, Thomas P., Bittner, Alvah C., Geddie, James C., Moroney, William F. and Muckler, Frederick A. (1994): T&E: Where are We Now and Where are We Going?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1077-1079.
“The purpose of this panel discussion is to examine the present status of test and evaluation (T&E) methodology, to consider the problems it faces, and to project its future in the 21st century. The discussion will attempt to raise the consciousness of measurement specialists to an awareness of the factors that affect their work.”
p. 1080-1084
Shattuck, Lawrence G. and Woods, David D. (1994): The Critical Incident Technique: Forty Years Later. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1080-1084.
“This year marks the both anniversary of the publication of John Ranagan's paper entitled "The Critical Incident Technique" in Psychological Bulletin. In the years since its publication, much has happened in the field of human factors. The critical incident technique is still a common tool among human factors practitioners, though it has often been modified. With a new generation of practitioners in training, it is important to consider what they are learning about this tool. A survey conducted with future human factors professionals highlights some misconceptions concerning the critical incident technique. These misconceptions seem to originate from two sources: the treatment of the technique in human factors textbooks and handbooks, and the use of the technique in current research and application work. Some modern variations of the critical incident technique are discussed. The critical incident technique is viewed as an instance in which human factors specialists are shaping their tools to meet their needs. A set of principles is proposed to guide today's human factors practitioners in conducting cognitively oriented field research.”
p. 1085-1089
Andre, Terence S. and Charlton, Samuel G. (1994): Strategy-to-Task: Human Factors Operational Test and Evaluation at the Task-Level. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1085-1089.
“Human factors operational test and evaluation (OT&E) at the function/characteristic level has not always provided an appropriate balance of addressing both the needs of the system user and the decision-maker. System users are primarily concerned with the characteristics and capabilities of their system. Acquisition decision-makers, on the other hand, are more concerned with force structure and how potential military systems fit within the national military strategy. Human factors OT&E has traditionally considered the user of the system by testing human factors at a characteristic, rather than mission or operational task-level. In order to address the needs of the decision-maker, OT&E has adopted a strategy-to-task formulation that can have the undesirable side effect of decreasing the visibility of human factors test results. Because human factors measures are considered at the system function/characteristic level, significant human performance/human-machine interface issues are not always visible at the level of higher task elements and missions. Systems which require significant human-in-control or human-in-the-loop operability may lend themselves to consideration at the task-level. Testing human factors at the task-level within the strategy-to-task framework provides both the decision-maker and user with the necessary information to buy and properly operate the system.”
p. 1090-1093
Deffner, Gerhard and Yuasa, Mashiho (1994): Understanding Perceived Image Quality: New Applications for Verbal Protocol Methodology. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1090-1093.
“The present study investigated the effectiveness of 'cued retrospective verbalization' used in combination with eye-movement recordings as memory aids to study image quality evaluation of display products. That is, recordings of eye movements during image quality judgments were played back as cues for recalling and verbalizing thoughts which occurred during prior image evaluation. The study also examined the consistency of subjects' image quality evaluation responses over time and whether retrospective verbalization influenced and altered subsequent preference. The experiment consisted of two sessions separated by a 60-hour interval. Subjects in the experimental condition performed retrospective verbalization in both sessions whereas subjects in the control condition did so only in the second session. Judgments of perceptual quality were stable over time, and there was no indication that cued retrospective verbalization influenced subsequent perceptual evaluation. Moreover, subjects in the experimental condition stated the same critical image characteristics for the reasons of their preferences if they had not changed their choices between the two sessions. When there were changes in preference over time, their verbalization protocol indicated clear shifts of attention from one critical image characteristic to another. Cued retrospective verbalization appears to be an effective tool to examine the processes of display image quality.”
p. 1094-1098
Chen, C., Burastero, S., Tittiranonda, P., Hollerbach, K., Shih, M. and Denhoy, R. (1994): Quantitative Evaluation of Four Computer Keyboards: Wrist Posture and Typing Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1094-1098.
“The present study focuses on an ergonomic evaluation of 4 computer keyboards, based on a quantitative analysis of wrist posture and typing performance and on subjective analyses of operator comfort during typing. The objectives of this study are (1) to quantify differences in the wrist posture and in typing performance when the four different keyboards are used, and (2) to analyze the subjective preferences of the subjects for alternative keyboards compared to the standard flat keyboard.”
p. 1099-1103
McGehee, Daniel V., Dingus, Thomas A. and Horowitz, Avraham D. (1994): An Experimental Field Test of Automotive Headway Maintenance/Collision Warning Visual Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1099-1103.
“Motor vehicle crashes resulting from one vehicle striking the rear-end of another are one of the most common types of crashes involving two or more vehicles. The National Safety Council reported (Accident Facts, 1992) that there were approximately 11.3 million motor vehicle crashes in 1991 of which 2.7 million were rear-end crashes (about 23.8% of the total). These crashes accounted for 33% of all collisions involving two or more vehicles. To address the rear-end crash problem, a color LCD display designed to indicate safe following distances was mounted in the instrument panel of an 1990 Olds Toronado Trofeo. The vehicle was also equipped with a laser range finder, forward view video camera, eye view camera, video multiplexer, and computer-controlled video cassette recorder. One hundred and eight drivers from three age groups participated in this field experiment in one of three display symbology conditions. Drivers were not explicitly instructed on how to use the headway displays. Data analyses indicated that (1) the drivers easily understood the displays, (2) those drivers who initially maintained unsafe headways increased their following distance when one of the display symbologies was used, (3) during events where changes in relative velocity (braking) took place, all three symbologies increased the overall headways, and (4) drivers preferred and understood, even better, displays that included graded headway/warning information.”
p. 11-15
Seagull, F. Jacob and Gopher, Daniel (1994): Expanding the Envelope of Performance: Training Pilots to Use Helmet Mounted Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 11-15.
“Helmet Mounted flight Displays (HMDs) of a through-the-window field-of-view (FOV) are widely used in modern aircraft for night vision. Unfortunately, pilots using such displays are susceptible to spatial disorientation due to the limited field-of-view and its consequent lack of orientation cues. This problem is especially pronounced when pilots move their heads, though this is precisely the behavior that enables them to counteract the limited FOV. The current experiment attempted to train pilots to move their heads without becoming disoriented. Twenty-five subjects participated in five treatment groups in a between-subjects design. Subjects piloted a simulated helicopter through a computer-generated winding canyon with either a single-eye HMD, or a binocular through-the-window "screen" display. Three control groups were trained using either (1) a binocular screen-display without a secondary task, (2) an HMD view without a secondary task, or (3) an HMD view with a secondary task presented in the center of the HMD FOV. The two remaining treatment conditions involved flying while carrying out a secondary task which required either (1) systematic head movement (displacement), or (2) systematic head-movement plus head re-orientation. Results indicate that after training, treatment groups completed significantly more flights without crashing using the HMD than did the control groups. They also had a significantly higher probability of surviving a given flight at any time. Treatment groups learned to increase their head movement, while control groups spontaneously reduced theirs. These findings indicate that spontaneous experience with an HMD does not lead to optimal performance. Development of attention control strategies focusing on the difficulties of HMDs increased considerably the ability of operators to cope with the problems.”
p. 1104-1108
Braun, Curt C., Sansing, Lori, Kennedy, Robert S. and Silver, N. Clayton (1994): Signal Word and Color Specifications for Product Warnings: An Isoperformance Application. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1104-1108.
“Recent work in the area of color and warnings has indicated that the level of hazard communicated by signal words varies as a function of the color in which they are printed. These findings suggest that signal word and color combinations create a continuum of perceived hazard. Although individual experiments advance the understanding of how color affects the perception of product hazard, explicit data do not always provide label designers and product manufacturers with the tools necessary to successfully apply them. To explore how color and signal words can be jointly used, the present effort applied the isoperformance technique to the problem of specifying signal word and color combinations. This technique identifies combinations of variables that produce equal (iso) levels of warning (performance). Using perceived hazard data from 30 participants, signal words and colors were systematically grouped into categories that conveyed equal levels of hazard. How the isoperformance technique might serve as a tool for label designers is described.”
p. 1109-1112
Farley, Richard S., Bishop, Phillip A. and Ray, Paul (1994): Evaluation of Half-Mask Gas Collection for Metabolic Measurement in the Workplace. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1109-1112.
“Metabolic measurement is often important in job design and research. Metabolic measurement via indirect spirometry has traditionally used a mouth-piece nose-clip headgear (MNH) method of collecting expired gases. MNH is often uncomfortable, prohibits oral communication, may fail because of loss of nose-clip, and may interfere with or alter some work tasks because of the awkwardness of the headgear. Gas collection masks (MASK) offer the possibility of partially or totally alleviating the problems of MNH but increase the possibility of erroneous measure due to leakage. This study compared the measurement of performance and subject's subjective ratings of a typical MNH vs. MASK (Hans Rudolph model 8900 series) over a range of work loads from light to maximal in 20 well-trained subjects (M=12, F=8). Ventilation (Ve), oxygen uptake (VOW), and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were collected with a Sensormedics MMC-1, and heart rate (HR) with a Polar Heartwatch. Comfort was assessed with a Likert questionnaire. Results from the final work rate are shown below: Variable Ve VO2 RER HR (L/min) (ml/kg/min) (bpm) MNH 105,217 52.2 1.13 187 MASK 115,281 56.6 1.09 187 Results show this MASK produced values as high as the MNH with greater subject comfort at both peak and sub-maximal work. The observed Ve in the MASK condition suggests that leakage was not problematic and there could be a tendency for the MNH to actually impede the measurement. Based on previous preliminary studies and these data, careful use of the MASK is recommended over MNH for work place metabolic or other ventilatory measurements.”
p. 111-114
Hibit, Rebecca and Marx, David A. (1994): Reducing Human Error in Aircraft Maintenance Operations with the Maintenance Error Decision Aid (MEDA). In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 111-114.
“The Maintenance Error Decision Aid (MEDA) is an event-driven tool that assists a maintenance investigator to identify contributing factors and corrective actions that will prevent airplanes from being dispatched with error-induced discrepancies. MEDA attempts to influence the user to think differently about how he views and investigates maintenance error by supporting a human-centered, error investigation.”
p. 1113-1117
Knapp, Beverly G., Coury, Bruce G., Ensing, Annette R. and Godfrey, Scott L. (1994): Information Categorization for BMD Command and Control. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1113-1117.
“Information requirements were investigated for operators in two BMD C2 (Ballistic Missile Defense Command and Control) Centers -- command level and operations level. The objective was to elicit their underlying perceptions and cognitive structure of incoming data items, to address information display and decision support design requirements. Experts judged information items using an unconstrained sorting task, and data were analyzed using multivariate scaling methods. Findings revealed differences between the two groups in clustering of and associations between information items; e.g., more complex associations were found for the command level center. Also, the utility of the scaling algorithms for the large data sets used was assessed.”
p. 1118-1122
Dingus, Thomas A., Hulse, Melissa C., McGehee, Daniel V., Manakkal, Raj and Fleischman, Rebecca N. (1994): Driver Performance Results from the TravTek IVHS Camera Car Evaluation Study. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1118-1122.
“The TravTek system constitutes a major Intelligent Vehicle-Highway System (IVHS) Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS) demonstration project. The system provided in-vehicle information via color touchscreen CRT, steering wheel buttons, and synthesized voice. The TravTek driver interface was developed with the intent of providing navigation, service and attractions, and roadway incident and traffic information to the driver. The design of the TravTek interface had as its primary objectives: (1) more effective driver navigation providing the benefit of saving time, (2) easy access to valuable and convenient location information to alleviate stress and increase driving enjoyment, (3) maintenance of safe driving performance during system use and safety improvement facilitated by information for avoiding hazards and for emergency response, and (4) improvement of roadway efficiency to alleviate congestion. This paper provides detailed data regarding driver performance and behavioral interactions with four TravTek navigation configurations and two conventional methods of navigation: a paper map and a textual direction list. The results indicate that turn-by-turn information, regardless of its method of presentation, results in effective driving and navigation performance. A moving map display with no supplemental information required high visual attention relative to the other conditions. The other TravTek conditions resulted in lower workload superior navigation performance than the paper map control condition.”
p. 1123-1127
Ye, Nong and Brinkman, Donald J. (1994): Test and Evaluation of Knowledge Transfer between Task Domains. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1123-1127.
“To examine the transfer of knowledge representation between task domains, working engineers and pharmacists were asked to provide pairwise dissimilarity ratings of concepts in a test domain. The test domain was independent of engineering and pharmacy and was relatively new to both subject groups. A quantitative technique based on the multidimensional scaling and directional statistics was used to test and evaluate group differences in knowledge representation. The results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between two groups in knowledge representation of the test domain. That is, knowledge representation was domain-specific and was not transferable between task domains.”
p. 1128-1130
Jordan, Patrick W. and Thomas, D. Bruce (1994): Ecological Validity in Laboratory Based Usability Evaluations. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1128-1130.
“An interview based survey, looking at the suitability of a laboratory facility for usability testing, raised the issue of 'ecological validity'. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the test environment mirrors the environment in which a product would be used in 'real life'. Ten ergonomists, nine of whom used the laboratory, were interviewed. Opinions of the laboratory were generally positive; indeed there was a consensus as to the high value of the facility in the ergonomists' work. However, only one of those asked felt that the laboratory provided as ecologically valid testing environment. Initially, this result seems surprising; if the conditions don't provide ecological validity, this would appear to be a limitation on the laboratory's value. This paper considers the concept of ecological validity; discussing the contexts in which it is important and those in which it is not a priority. The extent to which it can be achieved in the laboratory and how it could be achieved are also considered. Generally, the ergonomists were fairly pessimistic about the prospects for this. All, bar one, of the ergonomists interviewed also conducted studies outside of the laboratory. The part played by ecological validity in deciding to evaluate in the field is discussed; at what point does the issue become important enough to force evaluations outside of the laboratory? Five non-ergonomists from the same organization were also interviewed. Interestingly, they seemed to give ecological validity a higher priority than ergonomists, in terms of influencing the overall value of an evaluation. They were also more inclined to expect ecological validity to be achievable in the laboratory -- by using furniture to create an appropriate range of scenarios. This suggests that, even if scenario creating has no real effect on ecological validity (this was the opinion of many or the ergonomists), it may bring 'propaganda' benefits in terms of influencing commissioners' attitudes towards ergonomists' work.”
p. 1131-1134
Barker, Richard T. and Biers, David W. (1994): Software Usability Testing: Do User Self-Consciousness and the Laboratory Environment Make Any Difference?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1131-1134.
“The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of laboratory environment, user self-consciousness, and user experience on the user's subjective evaluation of software usability. The study employed a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial between-subjects design with 2 levels of Laboratory Environment (Cameras and Mirror vs. No Cameras and Mirrors), 2 levels of User Self-Consciousness (Low vs. High), and 2 levels of User Experience (Novice, Experienced). The users were asked to learn, then use, and finally subjectively evaluate a restricted subset of common word processing features over three hours of participation. Day 1 was a training day and Day 2 was a test day. Results indicated that high self-conscious and novice users make more word processing errors. However, they were no more likely to make those errors in the presence of cameras and a mirror. More importantly, the evidence for any effect of the independent variables on subjective evaluation was sparse -- limited to the interaction of self-consciousness and laboratory environment on just three of twelve factors. Moreover, the patter of these interactions indicated that self-consciousness and the laboratory environment did not influence subjective evaluation in any predictable manner. Despite some methodological shortcomings, the conclusion was drawn that these variables do not have a major impact on subjective evaluation of software usability.”
p. 1135-1139
Whitaker, Leslie and Peters, Leslie J. (1994): Modeling Operational Criteria for Evaluating Speech Communication. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1135-1139.
“Evaluation of systems can be conducted best under controlled circumstances which approximate operational conditions. In the present paper, we have examined this thesis as it applies to the test and evaluation of multi-person systems. Our specific focus has been the development of a conceptual model of speech communication requirements and the study of the impact of degraded speech intelligibility on performance of these multi-person systems. To obtain the control necessary to evaluate performance using speech intelligibility, an electronic circuit was developed and employed in a series of simulated tests of operational tasks. The application of these research findings to the task of system test and evaluation is described in the present paper.”
p. 1140-1144
Keran, Christopher M., Smith, Thomas J., Koehler, Eric J. and Mathison, Peter K. (1994): Behavioral Control Characteristics of Performance under Feedback Delay. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1140-1144.
“As part of a larger research project dealing with technological change, the U.S. Bureau of Mines has initiated a study of the nature and sources of variability in human performance during teleoperation. One important source of performance degradation during remote work is delay in sensory feedback from the remote site to the operator during task execution, caused by such factors as transmission and signal processing lags or inertia/momentum properties of large equipment. To investigate the properties of the behavioral control system under delayed feedback conditions, the Bureau has implemented a pursuit tracking task during which delay is imposed as a continuously varying sinusoidal forcing function. Using 11 subjects, the dynamic characteristics of tracking performance were assessed across a range of variable delay frequencies. Specifically, sinusoidal variations in visual feedback delay between 0 and 400 msec were imposed during a tracking task at frequencies between .05 and 2 Hz. The results show that RMS error, gain (fundamental FFT peak for the cursor signal/fundamental FFT peak for the target signal), and phase (phase angle difference between the target signal and the cursor signal) of the tracking control system are independent of variable feedback delay imposed across a forty-fold range of frequencies. One important implication of these findings is that operators may have limited ability to adapt to feedback delay conditions that may be present during teleoperation of large mobile mining equipment.”
p. 1145-1149
Fischer, Douglas S., Moroney, William F. and Biers, David W. (1994): Workload Context Effect: An Elusive Phenomenon. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1145-1149.
“The effect of workload context on subsequent performance and workload ratings has crucial implications regarding workload transition. However few studies have examined workload context effects; and those that have, report contradictory results. This study attempts to determine if the failure to find evidence of workload context effects might be attributable to methodological factors such as task duration, task difficulty, and experimental design. Twelve subjects "flew" three sessions of three trials on a computer-based flight simulator, and rated the workload after each trial. A pre-post experimental design presented the first and third trials at a medium level of difficulty while the second (experimental) trial was of low, medium, or high difficulty. Crosswinds of 2, 12, and 22 knots created the levels of low, medium, and high task difficulty. Analyses of the performance and workload data did not reveal significant differences in Trial 3 as a function of prior task difficulty presented in Trial 2. The inability to find workload context effects in the present study suggests that previous inconsistent findings can not be attributed to differences in task duration and experimental design. Rather, it appears that contradictory results may be attributable to differences in the range of task difficulty employed, the workload measurement tool, or both.”
p. 115-118
Hettinger, Lawrence J., Nelson, W. Todd and Haas, Michael W. (1994): Applying Virtual Environment Technology to the Design of Fighter Aircraft Cockpits: Pilot Performance and Situation Awareness in a Simulated Air Combat Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 115-118.
“The use of multi-sensory displays for fighter aircraft cockpits is being investigated at the U.S. Air Force's Armstrong Laboratory as a means of enhancing pilot performance. The current experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of employing such displays on the performance of a simulated air combat task. Each of four experienced US Air Force F-16 pilots flew 12 simulated missions which required them to locate and destroy four enemy bombers whose flight path was pre-programmed. Simultaneously, two other pilots were assigned to auxiliary cockpits in the laboratory and flew enemy fighter aircraft in an attempt to intercept and shoot down the primary pilot. Therefore there were three active participants in each air combat scenario. Each pilot flew six trials using a cockpit comprised of conventional F-15 flight instruments and six trials using a modified, multi-sensory cockpit. The results indicated that pilot performance and situation awareness were generally superior with the multi-sensory cockpit as opposed to the conventional cockpit, although statistical differences between the two were at best marginally significant. Nevertheless, the results suggest that if pilots were to receive advance training with the multi-sensory cockpit their performance may exceed that in the highly overlearned conventional cockpit by even more substantial amounts.”
p. 1150-1153
Moses, Franklin L., Salas, Ed, Cannon-Bowers, Janis A., Perez, Ray S., Roth, Emilie M., Mumaw, Randall J., Mirabella, Angelo, Cohen, Marvin S. and Klein, Gary (1994): Improved Training Methods: Research to Applications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1150-1153.
“How to train people to make good decisions, solve problems, and so on depends, as does all training, on some form of practice and feedback. The question for behavioral research often is how to improve on these basic requirements. Six panelists describe and discuss their research and experience with the relationship among training and factors such as group dynamics, stress, mental models, and naturalistic requirements. This session includes interaction among the panel and the audience.”
p. 1154-1157
Lampton, Donald R., Kolasinski, Eugenia M., Knerr, Bruce W., Bliss, James P., Bailey, John H. and Witmer, Bob G. (1994): Side Effects and Aftereffects of Immersion in Virtual Environments. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1154-1157.
“Immersive Virtual Environment (VE) technology, also known as virtual reality, is being touted as an important new medium for education and training. Other potential applications involve communications, medicine, architecture, astronomy, data handling, teleoperation, and entertainment. A threat to the successful application of this technology is that some users of VE systems suffer unwanted side effects and aftereffects similar to, but not limited to, symptoms of motion sickness. These effects may degrade training effectiveness and jeopardize user safety and well-being. This paper describes the incidence and severity of symptoms we recorded during four different experiments which examined VE training applications. The experiments involved a variety of tasks, simulated environments, and VE systems. We administered a 28 item questionnaire that addressed symptoms related to nausea, eye strain, and dizziness. Significant variation was observed across individuals. In each”
p. 1158-1162
Bailey, John H. and Witmer, Bob G. (1994): Learning and Transfer of Spatial Knowledge in a Virtual Environment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1158-1162.
“Two experiments were conducted to investigate route and configurational knowledge acquisition in a virtual environment (VE). The results indicate that route knowledge can be acquired in a VE and that it transfers to the real world. Furthermore, although it was not explicitly trained, participants acquired some configurational knowledge. Higher levels of interactive exposure to the VE resulted in better route knowledge than less interactive exposure. There was some evidence that more reported presence was correlated with better performance on spatial knowledge tests, while more reported simulator sickness was correlated with worse performance. Finally, performance during VE rehearsals was a strong, consistent correlate of performance on spatial knowledge tests.”
p. 1163-1167
Williams, Henry P., Wickens, Christopher D. and Hutchinson, Scott (1994): Fidelity and Interactivity in Navigational Training: A Comparison of Three Methods. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1163-1167.
“In two experiments we vary the degree of fidelity of a navigational training environment, and determine how this variance effects the degree of route knowledge and survey knowledge demonstrated in a navigational transfer task. Subjects learn about the geography of a computer-generated world by either (a) studying a 2D map of the world, (b) passively viewing a 3D course through the world on an IRIS display, or (c) actively flying through an IRIS-based simulation of the world. Groups (b) and (c) were yoked. All groups then transferred to a flight along the studied route plan in a high fidelity Evans and Sutherland visual simulation system. In Experiment 1, 60 pilots were assigned to the three training conditions, and the subjects in the two IRIS flight groups were subdivided into categories of low and high visual fidelity of the IRIS world. In this experiment, the active flight training condition yielded most accurate navigation performance (route knowledge), with the map-study group being nearly as proficient, and the passive group much lower. The map-study group had the highest recall of the geography (survey knowledge), but this knowledge did not provide them with any benefit in solving an unexpected navigational problem (functional survey knowledge). Visual fidelity had no effect on any measure of transfer performance. In Experiment 2, the speed and workload of the rehearsal flight was increased, and 10 pilots were assigned to each training group. The results revealed that the increased workload reversed the order of the two computer flight groups, with subjects in the active group who needed to rotate the map, now performing most poorly. The results of both experiments are discussed in terms of the detrimental effects of high workload to geographical learning, and to the dissociation between different kinds of geographical knowledge.”
p. 1168-1172
Bailey, Sandra S. (1994): Training with Images: Real and Representational. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1168-1172.
“A total of 60 subjects (24 males and 36 females) participated in a study to determine if a caricature's accentuation of critical cues results in improved recognition of handshapes used in the American Sign Language manual alphabet. Each subject was randomly assigned to one of two training groups. One group trained with photographs of the handshapes and the other group used caricatures. Once mastery of the alphabet was demonstrated, their ability to recognize the handshapes shown in four different modes (positive and negative photographs, and positive and negative caricatures) was tested. In the unrestricted condition, the duration of exposure was not artificially constrained. In the restricted testing condition, the handshapes were displayed at 320 msec, 500 msec and 700 msec. Both speed and accuracy were equally emphasized in the training and in the testing. The findings did not support the superfidelity hypothesis of caricatures. In the unrestricted condition, those trained with photographs responded significantly faster, regardless of mode, than those trained with caricatures. As predicted in the most restrictive display time (320 msec), mean response time was significantly faster with caricatures. This study has direct implications regarding the media used to train American Sign Language. The findings support the use of photographs to depict and to train novices in the ASL handshapes. Further research is needed to determine if these findings hold true as the complexity of the handshake increases.”
p. 1173-1177
Hess, Stephen M. and Detweiler, Mark C. (1994): Training to Reduce the Disruptive Effects of Interruptions. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1173-1177.
“Two multi-session experiments are described in which a complex problem-solving task was interrupted at different stages of practice. In Experiment 1, subjects practiced the main problem-solving task for three sessions, with intermittent interruptions during each session. By the end of Session 3, interruptions which were similar to the main task, in terms of type of material processed and processing demands, no longer disrupted performance as they had in Sessions 1 and 2. In Experiment 2, subjects practiced the same problem-solving task for two sessions without interruptions. The same types of interruptions used in Experiment 1 were introduced in Session 3. Although the main task was well learned by the third session, the interruptions disrupted subjects' main-task accuracies dramatically. These results suggest that training tasks under uninterrupted conditions can lead to excellent performance, but may not allow subjects to develop the kinds of strategies needed to flexibly recover from interruptions when they occur.”
p. 1178-1182
Walker, Neff, Fisk, Arthur D., Phipps, Donita and Kirlik, Alex (1994): Training Perceptual-Rule Based Skills. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1178-1182.
“The results of an experiment are discussed that address how best to train perceptual-rule based skills within a domain where rules correlate to perceptual aspects of a dynamic evolving environment. Participants performed the role of football quarterback where the object of the task was to learn to identify the correct pass receiver in a simulated football system. The correct receiver could always be specified by a set of rules or subtle perceptual cues. Subjects were assigned to one of four training groups which were constructed by complete crossing of rule versus no rule learning and visual enhancement training versus no visual enhancement training. After training trials all subjects transferred to new plays in which new rules or perceptual cues were required. Transfer performance was superior for the participants who received the visually enhanced training. These results are discussed in light of theories of part-task training.”
p. 1183-1187
Kellman, Philip J. and Kaiser, Mary K. (1994): Perceptual Learning Modules in Flight Training. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1183-1187.
“Differences between novices and experts in many piloting skills may be due to perceptual learning. Sufficient exposure to relevant stimulus variation produces more efficient information extraction, processing of higher-order patterns, and automaticity. Isolating and condensing relevant perceptual experience in part-task environments might accelerate training. Here we report initial studies of two prototype perceptual learning modules (PLMs) for flight training. Subjects were either experienced (500-2500 hour) civil aviators or non-pilots. In the Visual Navigation PLM, subjects received brief instruction on aeronautical chart symbology and then viewed 20-second segments of terrain (videotaped from aircraft). Each trial required a speeded, forced choice of the aircraft's location from three possible grid locations on the aeronautical chart. A separate control group received only 20 pro- and 20 post-test trials. In the Instrument Relationships PLM, subjects viewed displays of primary flight instruments and performed a speeded response classifying the flight attitude depicted. In both PLMs, subjects' speed and accuracy were measured over 9 blocks of trials. PLMs produced dramatic improvements in speed and accuracy for both non-pilots and pilots. Pilots initially outperformed non-pilots. Non-pilots after 1-2 hours of PLM training were as accurate and faster than pilots before training in both PLMs. The results suggest that PLMs have value for primary and recurrent training, both in aviation and other domains. Appropriately structured PLMs could condense perceptual learning processes that normally occur with extended experience. By fostering greater automaticity of pattern processing, PLMs might allow component skills to be more easily integrated in flight or other complex tasks.”
p. 1188-1192
Jarrard, Stephen W. and Wogalter, Michael S. (1994): Learning Complex Visual Stimuli: Effects of Spaced Presentation and Rehearsal on Aircraft Recognition. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1188-1192.
“This study examined the effects of three presentation methods (one massed and two distributed) and two visual rehearsal conditions (rehearsal allowed and not allowed) on recognition of complex visual stimuli. The stimuli, photographs of military aircraft, were tested using a different view than the three views given at study. Recognition performance was measured by hit, false alarm, and discrimination indices to assess differences among the presentation and rehearsal conditions. A substantial effect of rehearsal was found. Allowing intervals for, and encouraging, post-exposure imaging increased hit and discrimination scores compared to conditions where post-exposure imaging was prevented. No significant effect of presentation method or interaction with rehearsal was noted. Exploratory analyses suggested that a study strategy involving attention to individual features to be associated with higher recognition performance. Empirical, theoretical, and applied implications of the study are discussed, and suggestions for further research are described.”
p. 119-123
Kleiss, James A. (1994): Effect of Terrain Shape and Object Grouping on Detection of Altitude Change in a Flight Simulator. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 119-123.
“Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analyses of flight simulator visual scenes reveal that both the shape of the terrain surface as well as the spatial distribution of objects on the terrain are salient to pilots flying at low altitudes. MDS is based upon similarity ratings and it was deemed important to verify the relevance of these scene properties using a performance based task in a flight simulator. The task was an ascent/descent discrimination task similar to that used in other flight simulation research. Terrain shape and elements on the terrain (texture and objects) were factorially manipulated. Presence of hills as well as the spatial organization of objects on the terrain affected performance in some conditions. A positive effect of hills is noteworthy because hills did not extend above the horizon and therefore posed no vertical obstructions. Thus, they provide relevant information for perceiving altitude change apart from the role they may play in obstructing vision or navigation.”
p. 1193-1194
Stout, Renei J. (1994): Investigating the Unique Contribution of Feedback in Teams: Implications For Training. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1193-1194.
“The vital role played by teams in modern society has become unquestionable. Therefore, it is crucial that viable training technologies are developed and applied to teams. One concept or training technique that has been studied extensively, though in the area of individual skills training and performance, is feedback. Within this arena, feedback has been investigated across a wide variety of task complexes, and it has been generally accepted from this body of research that feedback is beneficial. However, there is a dearth of empirical research on the effects of feedback on team performance. consequently, several questions related to the provision of feedback in teams remain. For example, it is unknown what type and what degree of conceptual training is required to "set the stage" such that trainees are able to appropriately interpret feedback and effectively incorporate the feedback into their subsequent performance. Further, it is uncertain what effect established goals, and particularly, potential conflicting goals may have on how trainees interpret and utilize feedback that they are given. In addition, it is critical to determine what the nature of feedback should be. At one end of the spectrum, one can focus on providing performance outcome feedback, such as informing team members of both individual and team level error. At the other end of this continuum, one can focus on providing feedback on the team processes that enabled the team to attain a given level of performance. Given the variety of team tasks, environments, structures, and stages of development of teams that exist, research is needed to determine how best to combine and to link outcome-type feedback and process feedback to minimize potential confusions, conflicts, and/or trade-offs in accomplishing individual level and team level performance and to optimize overall team effectiveness. The present symposium attempts to begin to address these questions, by providing both theoretical perspectives, as well as empirical findings.”
p. 1195-1199
Blickensderfer, Elizabeth L., Cannon-Bowers, Janis A. and Salas, Eduardo (1994): Feedback and Team Training: Exploring the Issues. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1195-1199.
“As team researchers have endeavored to understand team performance and team training, feedback in the team environment has been a neglected topic. A number of issues are involved in the design and provision of feedback to teams. These include team process/outcome issues in addition to characteristics of the task, team as a whole, and the team members as individuals. The inherent problems in team feedback provide the impetus for considering new approaches to team feedback. One such approach, team self-correction, may be valuable in clarifying anticipations and explanations among team members.”
p. 1200-1203
Smith, Kimberly A. (1994): Toward Optimizing the Impact of Developmental Feedback in Team Training Simulations. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1200-1203.
“This paper reports evaluation data from an effort to train assertive communication in aircrews. The impact of preliminary conceptual training and simulator instructions which focused trainees on the target skill was examined on the reported usefulness of post-simulation feedback. Results indicated that trainees who received conceptual training one week prior to a simulation exercise reported the feedback they received on their performance more useful than those who had not received preliminary training. Further, trainees who were informed ahead of time which skill dimension was the focus of the simulation ruled the feedback they received on their performance less useful than those who were not given this information. Implications for the use of simulation to enhance teamwork skills and attitudes are discussed.”
p. 1204-1208
Jentsch, Florian G., Navarro, Guillermo and Bowers, Clint A. (1994): Trade-Offs in a Team Tracking Task as a Function of Performance Feedback. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1204-1208.
“Team members often have to make decisions about which aspects of their tasks they should emphasize. One of the factors that may determine these decisions is the type of feedback. In this study, the influence of the type of concurrent performance feedback on team performance in a pursuit tracking task was investigated. Eighteen dyads performed a reciprocally interdependent team tracking task. Subjects' goal was to optimize team performance under three different conditions: One team member never received feedback while the other received either team, individual, or no feedback. The tracking error was measured. The results from this study largely confirmed the findings from previous research which had indicated a feedback by team member interaction: When provided with individual feedback, team members seemed to emphasize the perceived individual aspects of their task at the expense of the team effort. Under team feedback, the reverse occurred. In support of these findings, the current study found a significant gap in performance between the two team members under individual feedback conditions. The team member receiving individual feedback performed significantly better than their interdependent cohort. Yet, when subjects received either team or no feedback, their performance was worse than that of their team member, even if the difference failed to reach statistical significance. The results suggest that feedback can adequately focus subjects' attention towards specific aspects of their task.”
p. 1209-1213
Weaver, Jeanne L., Urban, Julie M., Maniam, Nalini and Bowers, Clint A. (1994): Team Skill Acquisition: Team and Individual Performance Effects of Feedback. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1209-1213.
“Although team development research has, to some extent, addressed the various components of team functioning, leer studies have failed to sufficiently clarify what influences teams as they acquire the various skills that constitute complex team performance. Similarly, research regarding team structure, as of yet, has failed to fully determine how teams under various structures should be trained in order to optimize their ability to perform complex (i.e., both team and individual) tasks. Thus, there is a need to investigate differential developmental trends in teams of varying structure. Additionally, research is required to identify interventions which might optimize the developmental process. Although the effects of feedback are becoming increasingly well investigated, there has been relatively little investigation regarding the impact of feedback given on multiple task performance. The current study investigates the impact of feedback given, over time, regarding team vs. individual tasks in teams of two structures: non-hierarchical vs. product. Results supported the hypothesized differential effects of feedback type during skill acquisition under varying levels of structure.”
p. 1214
Goettl, Barry P., Kline, Kevin B. and Regian, J. Wesley (1994): Computers in the Training of Complex Tasks. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 1214.
“The increasing power and speed of desktop computers makes automated instruction more feasible than ever before. Today, PC-based automated instructional systems can be utilized for training very complex tasks from attention demanding motor skills tasks that require rapid processing of multiple sources of information to complicated procedural tasks that impose high demands on memory. With this new technology comes the need to examine the applicability of well established instructional methods in the domain of the new generation of automated instructional systems. One challenge that these new systems pose is that many of the relevant theories and pedagogies are based on research utilizing relatively simple tasks. The objective of this symposium is to examine basic research issues relevant to automated instruction and training of complex tasks.”
p. 1215-1219
Shebilske, Wayne L., Corrington, Kip and Jordan, Jeffrey A. (1994): Massed versus Distributed Practice in Complex Skill Acquisition. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1215-1219.
“A training sequence on a complex video research task was distributed over 10 days or massed within two days. Measures of fatigue and confidence were taken. A final test battery given 1 week after acquisition consisted of retention tests, a test of resistance to interference, and a test of transfer. Trainees in the Distributed condition performed better throughout. Massed and Distributed trainees showed moderate levels of fatigue and did not differ from each other. Differences in confidence could not account for the results. Theories based on massing simple task acquisition within an hour are discussed as a framework for understanding and reducing suppression caused by massing complex tasks within days.”
p. 1220-1224
Goettl, Barry P. (1994): Contextual Interference Effects on Acquisition and Transfer of a Complex Motor Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1220-1224.
“Research in motor skill and verbal memory suggests that random sequencing of trials results in retention and transfer that is superior to blocked presentation of trials. The contextual interference effect is based largely on relatively simple motor and verbal tasks. The present study explores the generalizability of the contextual interference effect to a complex flight simulator task. Subjects (66 males and 45 females) were assigned to three groups (i.e., whole-task, part-task blocked, and part-task sequenced) and trained on a desktop flight simulator. Part-task blocked subjects practiced 13 component tasks presented in blocks (low contextual interference), and part-task sequenced subjects practiced the same component tasks presented in a sequence that was repeated several times (high contextual interference). It was predicted that part-task sequenced subjects would show superior retention and transfer compared to blocked subjects. Results indicated that whole-task subjects showed the best retention and the two part-task groups did not differ. Additionally, all three groups showed equivalent performance on the transfer task. These results suggest that the contextual interference effect may not generalize to complex tasks.”
p. 1225-1228
Farquhar, John D. and Regian, J. Wesley (1994): The Type and Timing of Feedback within an Intelligent Console-Operations Tutor. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1225-1228.
“Feedback has remained a useful construct through a shift from a behaviorist explanation of learning to a more cognitive understanding. Research in the use of feedback in education suggests that corrective feedback, or feedback that provides the correct answer, is more effective than feedback that simply indicates an error. However, contrary to an information-processing theory of learning, these studies generally find no efficacy for feedback of a more elaborative nature such as the use of additional explanatory information. The study described in this paper investigated the type and timing of feedback within an intelligent console-operations tutor. Results indicate that when immediate feedback is employed during the acquisition of console-operation skill, elaborative feedback yields greater accuracy of the skill over the use of corrective feedback.”
p. 1229-1233
Gomez, Catherine Connolly, Shebilske, Wayle and Regian, J. Wesley (1994): The Effects of Training on Cognitive Capacity Demands for Synthetic Speech. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1229-1233.
“Previous studies have revealed that the perception and comprehension of synthetic speech may be attributed to increased processing demands in short-term memory as reflected in serial-order and preload paradigm tasks. Additionally, it has been consistently shown that the perception of synthetic speech improves with moderate amounts of training. The present study was conducted to determine if the increased perceptual effects of training for synthetic speech can be attributed to a reduction of short-term memory load. Two groups of subjects were tested with synthetic speech using the same comprehension and high cognitive processing tasks before and after training. One group was trained with synthetic speech and the other group acted as the control, receiving no training between the pretest and post-test interval. Results reveal similar increases in comprehension based on previous synthetic speech studies for the trained group. Moreover, these results suggest that training on synthetic speech promotes better allocation of attentional resources which result in improved performance on working memory capacity measures.”
p. 1234-1237
Urban, Julie M., Bowers, Clint A., Morgan, Ben B. and Maniam, Nalini (1994): The Effects of Workload and Uncertainty on Team Development. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1234-1237.
“Two studies were performed that attempted to test and extend the team development theory of "punctuated equilibrium" proposed by Gersick (1988). In the first study, twelve five-person teams performed a resource allocation task, either under low or high workload. In the second study, twelve three-person teams performed an adapted version of this resource allocation task under either certain or uncertain task conditions. Various aspects of performance were assessed. The results of these studies support Gersick's contention that teams do go through one marked period of transition. However, this transition does not necessarily occur in the midpoint of the team's life cycle.”
p. 1238-1241
Stewart, John E. (1994): Using the Backward Transfer Paradigm to Validate the AH-64 Simulator Training Research Advanced Testbed for Aviation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1238-1241.
“The Simulator Training Research Advanced Testbed for Aviation (STRATA) is a modular research simulator which in its current configuration represents the AH-64 helicopter. The backward transfer of training paradigm was employed to determine if AH-64 piloting skills transfer to STRATA. Ten AH-64 pilots participated in the experiment. They performed a mission scenario consisting of 13 Aircrew Training Manual (ATM) tasks. No orientation or practice was allowed. Most participants rated STRATA as highly similar to the AH-64 in handling. Real-time performance ratings indicated that of 130 task events, 88.5% were performed to ATM standards. After the experiment, four independent judges rank-ordered performance on the hover task using output from STRATA's performance measurement system. Rankings showed high concordance and a high correlation with real-time ratings.”
p. 124-127
Mayer, David L., Brenner, Malcolm and Cash, James R. (1994): Development of a Speech Analysis Protocol for Accident Investigation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 124-127.
“This paper describes an initial attempt to develop a protocol for speech analysis techniques that might lead to a better understanding of the cognitive and emotional states that underlie the behavior of people involved in accidents. A tape recording of radio transmissions made by a pilot during both routine and emergency flight conditions was analyzed. Five primary speech measures were made for each statement: mean fundamental frequency (f{sub:0}), range of fundamental frequencies ({Delta}f{sub:0}), duration, mean amplitude and syllable count. Speaking rate (syllables per second) and two other derived measures were computed later. During routine flight, the pilot's f{sub:0} averaged 123.9 Hz, but this increased to an average of 200.1 Hz during emergency conditions. Range of f{sub:0} also increased significantly, while syllable count decreased. These changes may provide a profile of a response to extreme stress that may be useful for gaining insight into situations in which such stress is not otherwise apparent.”
p. 1242-1246
Robertson, Michelle M., Taylor, James C., Stelly, John W. and Wagner, Robert (1994): Evaluating a Maintenance Crew Resource Management Training Program: Effects on Attitudes, Behaviors, and Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1242-1246.
“A Crew Resource Management program for maintenance personnel has been developed by an airline company which involves several team relied concepts. Technical operations managers' pro and post-training attitudes and their follow-up attitudes (2, 6 and 12 months afterwards) concerning a variety of management and organizational factors were compared with one another as well as with maintenance performance measures. Comparisons of participants' attitudes before and after their training showed a significant improvement in attitudes indicators and these attitudes remained stable overtime. Positive trends for two of the maintenance performance indicators are demonstrated in comparing pro and post training performance measures. Increased safety and improved on-time performance was found relied to improved attitudes about participation and assertive communication. Open ended responses as well as anecdotal evidence confirms the positive changes in attitudes and behaviors.”
p. 1247-1251
Gordon, Sallie E., Babbitt, Bettina A., Bell, Herbert H. and Sorensen, H. Barbara (1994): Development of a Real-Time Simulation with Intelligent Tutoring Capabilities. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1247-1251.
“Training programs for complex tasks are increasingly using simulations to provide transfer of training to the job environment without incurring high costs of on-the-job training. A second trend in training is toward the use of intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) to provide individualized feedback to optimize training. Combining simulation with an ITS can be especially beneficial, but use of intelligent tutoring mechanisms such as expert systems is often difficult in a complex, real-time environment. In this paper, we describe the development of a proof-of-concept training program that combines F-16 flight simulation with an embedded real-time intelligent tutoring system. In the simulation, pilots learn the correct use of advanced fire control radar modes to locate and assess multiple enemy formations (search and sort tasks). The expert system monitors pilot behavior and verbal responses as the pilot flies the simulation. At certain critical points, if the pilot's performance has fallen outside of pre-specified parameters of "safe" behavior, the tutoring component stops the simulation and feedback is provided.”
p. 1252-1255
Edwards, R. J., Streets, D. F. and Bond, G. (1994): The Effects of Back Angle on Target Detection. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1252-1255.
“It is suggested that crew members of future armoured vehicles will be reclined. However, information relating to task performance when reclined for prolonged (i.e. >30 minutes) periods is limited. This study has investigated the effects of prolonged reclining on a simple target detection task. Twelve subjects undertook four separate seventy minute studies in the upright (control) seated posture or reclined, with head support, at 25{deg}, 45{deg}, and 65{deg} from the vertical. Subjects viewed a model scrubland scene, with light emitting diodes hidden behind the scrub, through seven vision blocks which covered a 300{deg} field of view. During the first 10 minutes subjects responded to a sequence of 32 randomly distributed signals of 4 seconds length, with 15 seconds between each signal. They rested for 50 minutes before repeating the 10 minute test epoch. Measurements taken were number of responses, body part discomfort, sleepiness and Stress and Arousal Checklist, and were analyzed using Analysis of Variance. Percentage targets detected significantly reduced with back angle, with the greatest reduction being in the subjects' frontal arc. General body and neck discomfort and sleepiness significantly increased with back angle. Reported stress significantly increased and arousal decreased, but only between 0{deg} and 65{deg}. There was no significant time effect. Possible explanations for the results are that the chair and posture inhibited freedom and ease of movement, or that increased discomfort at the more acute angles may have resulted in an altered searching behaviour. Whatever the mechanism this study has shown that reclined postures may significantly impair the performance of an all-round surveillance task, particularly at the more acute back angles.”
p. 1256-1260
Nugent, William A. (1994): Effects of Symbol Type, Selection Tool, and Information Density on Tactical Display Visual Search Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1256-1260.
“This study compared the relative effectiveness of two color-coded symbol sets and two selection tools in performing a tactical display visual search task. Performance data were obtained for 36 symbols (called target tracks), 12 in each of three warfare areas. Each target track was presented under four levels of overlap by adjoining or occluding it with non-target (distracter) symbols of the same or different color. Performance measures, which included speed, accuracy, number of selection tool uses and time-outs, were obtained for 144 trials per participant. Results showed color-filled NATO symbols yielded faster, more accurate performance than stroke-drawn NTDS symbols for all but the total overlap condition. Significant two-way interactions were also obtained between the symbol set and selection tool factors, with results showing poorer overall performance for participants in the NTDS-click tool condition. The practical applications and design implications of these findings are discussed, along with specific recommendations for improving operator performance when using color-filled NATO symbols in dense tactical track environments.”
p. 1261-1265
Gramopadhye, Anand K. and Sreenivasan, Rakesh (1994): Visual Lobe and Visual Search Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1261-1265.
“Visual lobe continues to be an important determinant of extended search performance. This study looks at the effect of various methods of training on visual lobe size. Furthermore, it relates changes in visual lobe size to improvements in visual search performance. Subjects were trained using three different methods. In method 1 subjects were trained on a visual lobe improvement task using the actual fault. In method 2 subjects were trained on an irrelevant target using the visual lobe measurement task and in method 3 subjects were provided practice on the extended visual search task. Greatest improvements in lobe size and search performance were observed for method 1.”
p. 1266-1270
Czerwinski, Mary, Feldman, Evan M. and Cutrell, Edward (1994): The Influence of Stimulus Dimensions and Training on Visual Search Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1266-1270.
“Traditional studies of attention, training and visual search have focused on the use of separable dimensions (usually alphanumeric stimuli), and equating the number of items in consistent versus varied mapping training paradigms. However, the design of visual displays requires a heavy reliance upon configural and integral dimensions (stimuli that group). This set of studies examines the effects of configural dimensions (also using alphanumeric stimuli), as well as equating the number of training trials on specific targets between consistent versus varied mapping conditions. Predictions from extant theories of attention and visual search will be discussed where relevant. Results show that both factors have a large influence on the effects of training in visual search tasks. The influence of these variables needs to be incorporated into current theories of attention and visual search, especially as they are applied to the design of graphical user interfaces and visual displays.”
p. 1271-1274
Shively, R. Jay and Goodman, Allen D. (1994): Effects of Perceptual Augmentation of Visual Displays: Dissociation of Performance and Situational Awareness. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1271-1274.
“It is intuitive that good performance is associated with, if not caused by, good situational awareness. There are, however, some situations in which these two concepts diverge. Some examples of this dissociation, such as auto-pilots, have been identified. However, it is also possible that these concepts diverge in a much more subtle manner. This research is focused on investigating those more subtle situations. Specifically, this research addresses the effects of perceptual display enhancement based upon Ecological Task Analysis (ETA) on performance and situational awareness. A perceptually augmented display was designed based upon ETA. Globally, performance advantages were found for the group with the enhanced display. Further, the findings demonstrated a dissociation of subtask performance and operator's knowledge of the system subtask. The mechanisms involved in this dissociation are related to the characteristics of the display augmentation that led to the increased performance. The level of processing, and the presence of feedback seem to play an important mediating role. These findings have important implications for both designers and researchers.”
p. 1275-1279
Garness, Sheila A., Flach, John M., Stanard, Terry and Warren, Rik (1994): The Basis for the Perception and Control of Altitude: Splay & Depression Angle Components of Optical Flow. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1275-1279.
“This study evaluated subjects ability to track a constant altitude as a function of the structure in the optical flow field. Optic flow was manipulated by using four different types of ground texture (splay angle, depression angle, random dot, and block textures) crossed with two global optical flow (GOF) rates (0 and 3 eyeheights/s). The subjects were asked to maintain a constant altitude while wind disturbances randomly perturbed them on vertical, lateral, and fore-aft axes. The critical independent variables were texture type and GOF rate. Texture type was a within-subjects variable while GOF rate was a between-subjects variable. The main dependent variables included RMS height error and the correlation between subjects stick activity and the three wind disturbances. For both dependent variables, an interaction was found in that the depression angle texture provided superior performance in a hover or 0 GOF rate condition. The splay angle texture provided a constant level of performance for both GOF rates, being superior to depression angle in the higher GOF rate. These results are consistent with Flach et al.'s (1992) hypothesis that the ability to pick-up altitude information from the optic flow field depends upon the amount of optical activity that is specific to changes in altitude (signal) rather than specific to changes in lateral or fore-aft position (noise). This hypothesis provides a higher order explanation for previous results on the control of altitude which had been thought to be inconsistent.”
p. 128-132
Besco, Robert O., Sangal, Satya P., Nesthus, Thomas E. and Veronneau, Stephen J. H. (1994): A Study of Life Expectancy for a Sample of Retired Airline Pilots. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 128-132.
“There is a popular belief in the aviation industry that retired pilots die at a younger age than their counterparts in the general population. If this is true, research into factors associated with this career would be of interest to the FAA as indicators of possible health factors to be monitored in the pilot population. A sample of 1494 pilots who retired at age 60 from a major U.S. airline between the study dates of April 1968 to July 1993 were surveyed. The Life Table Method was chosen as the most suitable approach to analyze the pattern of mortality for this data set. Comparisons were made with the U.S. general population of 60 year-old white males in 1980. A difference in life expectancy of more than 5 years longer was found for our sample of retired airline pilots. Half of the pilots in this sample retiring at age 60 were expected to live past 83.8 years of age, compared to 77.4 years for the general population of 60 year-old white males in 1980. The authors concluded that the question of lowered life expectancy for airline cockpit crews was not supported by the results of these data.”
p. 1280-1284
Kibbe, Marion P. and Stiff, Jan (1994): Operator Performance in Pattern Matching as a Function of Reference Material Structure. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1280-1284.
“This paper examines the performance of subjects in verifying matches between aerial photographs and overlayed line drawings which vary in structure and pixel count. Both speed and accuracy improve as the pixel count increases with an asymptote at about 3500 pixels. Speed and accuracy also improve when the line drawings are made up of long lines or with lines which correspond to the cognitive content of the photographs.”
p. 1285-1289
MacMillan, Jean, Entin, Eileen B. and Serfaty, Daniel (1994): Operator Reliance on Automated Support for Target Recognition. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1285-1289.
“In machine-aided target recognition, human operators work with an automatic target recognition (ATR) system to locate targets in cluttered and degraded imagery. The operator must integrate his or her own visual judgment concerning whether a target is present in the image with the ATR's judgment, which is typically expressed numerically. We conducted a series of experiments in which subjects attempted to locate target shapes among non-targets based only on visual images and based on both visual images and supplementary numeric information such as an ATR might provide. Image quality was controlled as an independent variable through the use of distortion rates that randomly altered pixel values to degrade the image. We found that subjects maintained a constant false alarm rate as image distortion increased, at the expense of a lower hit rate. This result was found consistently in experiments where the subjects' task was to distinguish single targets from a blank background, to distinguish single targets from single non-targets, and to locate multiple targets in a multiple-object display. We also found a bias toward over reliance on image versus numeric information. As image distortion increased, subjects failed to make optimal use of supplementary numeric information and showed an unnecessary decrease in performance. The results suggest that operators may experience difficulty in working with an ATR that has a high false alarm rate, even if the ATR's hit rate is also high, and that numeric expressions of ATR judgment may be undervalued by operators in locating targets.”
p. 1290-1294
Reinhart, William F. and Lloyd, Charles J. C. (1994): A Human Factors Simulation Tool for Stereoscopic Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1290-1294.
“The increasing complexity of advanced display systems places increased importance on simulation tools. Display simulation tools allow the development of displays with the desired balance of image quality and end cost while reducing the time and cost otherwise associated with iterative testing of physical prototypes. In addition, simulation offers the advantage of permitting demonstration of display systems to targeted users and decision makers early in the display design cycle, allowing for more feedback in the design process. A new display simulation tool is described in this paper with the capability of simulating advanced electronic stereoscopic displays. To illustrate the use of this tool, an evaluation of a simulated stereoscopic head-mounted display is reported. Surgeons viewed stereoscopic laparoscopic imagery and rated the acceptability of display gray scale, resolution, and field of view. Clear preferences were seen for levels of each of these parameters. Simulations such as the one described in this report play an invaluable role in defining acceptable design parameters prior to commitment to display production.”
p. 1295-1299
Brown, Michael E. and Gallimore, Jennie J. (1994): Visualization of CAD Objects Using a Stereoscopic Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1295-1299.
“Subjects memorized the shape of a static 3-D object displayed on a stereoscopic CRT. In each of a series of trials that followed, single static objects were presented. The angular orientation of each trial object was one of six 36-degree increments relative to the angle of the memorized stimulus. The subject's task was to determine, as quickly and accurately as possible, whether the trial object was the same shape as the memorized object or its mirrored image. One of the two cases was always true. Disparity and interposition were manipulated in a within-subject manner during the initial memorization period and the trials that followed. Subject response time and error rate were evaluated. The experimental objective was to determine the extent to which stereopsis and hidden surface affect subjects' ability to 1) transfer to and retrieve from long-term memory spatial information about a 3-D object, and 2) visualize spatial characteristics in a quick and direct manner. Improved performance due to hidden surface is the most convincing experimental finding. The study also found a significant but limited stereopsis effect.”
p. 1300-1304
Ellis, Stephen R. and Bucher, Urs J. (1994): Distance Perception of Stereoscopically Presented Virtual Objects Optically Superimposed on Physical Objects by a Head-Mounted See-Through Display. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1300-1304.
“The influence of physically presented background stimuli on distance judgments to optically overlaid, stereoscopic virtual images has been studied using head-mounted stereoscopic, virtual image displays. Positioning of an opaque physical object either at the perceived depth of the virtual image or at a position substantially in front of it, has been observed to cause the virtual image to apparently move doses to the observer. In the case of physical objects positioned substantially in front of the virtual image, subjects often perceive the opaque object as transparent. Evidence is presented that the apparent change of position caused by interposition of the physical object is not influenced by the strengthening of occlusion cues but is influenced by motion of the physical objects which would attract the subjects ocular vergence. The observed effect appears to be associated with the relative conspicuousness of the overlaid virtual image and the background. This effect may be related to Foley's models of open-loop stereoscopic pointing errors which attributed the stereoscopic distance errors to misjudgment of a reference point for interpretation of retinal disparities. Some implications for the design of see-through displays for manufacturing will also be discussed briefly.”
p. 1305-1309
Surdick, R. Troy, Davis, Elizabeth T., King, Robert A., Corso, Gregory M., Shapiro, Alexander, Hodges, Larry and Elliot, Kelly (1994): Relevant Cues for the Visual Perception of Depth: Is Where You See It Where It Is?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1305-1309.
“We tested seven visual depth cues (relative brightness, relative size, relative height, linear perspective, foreshortening, texture gradient, and stereopsis) at viewing distances of one and two meters to answer two questions. First, which cues provide effective depth information (i.e., only a small change in the depth cue results in a noticeable change in perceived depth). Second, how does the effectiveness of these depth cues change as a function of the viewing distance? Six college-aged subjects were tested with each depth cue at both viewing distances. They were tested using a method of constant stimuli procedure and a modified Wheatstone stereoscopic display. Accuracies for perceptual match settings for all cues were very high (mean constant errors were near zero), and no cues were significantly more or less accurate than any others. Effectiveness of the perspective cues (linear perspective, foreshortening, and texture gradient) was superior to that of other depth cues, while effectiveness of relative brightness was vastly inferior. Moreover, stereopsis, among the more effective cues at one meter, was significantly less so at two meters. These results have theoretical implications for models of human spatial perception and practical implications for the design and development of 3D virtual environments.”
p. 1310-1311
MacMillan, Jean, Becker, Curtis, Kibbe, Marion and O'Kane, Barbara (1994): Integrating Human and Machine Vision: Lessons from Automated Target Recognition Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1310-1311.
“The development of Automated Target Recognition (ATR) systems has been the focus of considerable interest and funding during the past decade. Such systems were originally envisioned as being almost completely autonomous and capable of detecting, locating, and classifying targets and of assigning weapons to targets with little or no human intervention. Such completely autonomous performance remains well beyond current ATR capabilities, however. Under the performance levels currently achievable for ATR systems, the human operator plays an essential role in screening ATR detections and rejecting false alarms. Operators must rapidly review the ATR's judgments, and their accuracy in confirming or rejecting those judgments is a critical determinant of the overall effectiveness of the human-machine system. The integration of human and machine visual capabilities is a key factor in effective system design. Research on human-ATR interaction has identified fundamental issues that must be considered in the design of any system in which human visual judgment is integrated with machine-based visual judgment. The objective of this panel is to identify and discuss critical issues for the design of an aided target recognition system, in which the human operator and the ATR work synergistically, and to assess the implications of human-ATR research results for the design of systems that integral human and machine vision. The panel will discuss the following issues: * Differences in human and ATR target-recognition accuracy. How accurate must an ATR be, relative to the human operator, in order to be of assistance? What are the implications of ATR false alarms versus missed detections? How do ATR performance levels relate to the confidence that human operators place in the ATR? * Differences in the process by which humans and ATR systems recognize targets, and the implications of those differences. Automated target recognition technologies need not replicate the process by which humans recognize targets, and human and machine vision may show different relative strengths and weaknesses, i.e., the ATR may be superior to the human in recognizing some types of targets in some circumstances but not in others. What are the implications of these differences for operator confidence in the ATR and for system design? * How important is the design of the visual interface in human-ATR interactions? What aspects of display design can affect human-ATR system performance? What are the implications of combining human image interpretation with ATR judgments that are displayed numerically, e.g., a numeric level of confidence associated with a target identification?”
p. 1312-1316
Sawin, David A. and Scerbo, Mark W. (1994): Vigilance: How to Do It and Who Should Do It. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1312-1316.
“The present laboratory study examined variables that are believed to impact vigilance in operational settings. First, instructions given to subjects were manipulated in order to impact their feelings of "command pressure" (Mackie, Wylie, & Smith, 1985). It was expected that instructions emphasizing detection efficiency would lead to increased subjective workload. Further, it was expected that decreasing instructional demands by emphasizing relaxing qualities of the task would not impact performance, though lower workload ratings were expected. In addition, response bias was manipulated by telling subjects to adopt either a conservative or a liberal criterion. Secondly, subjects' boredom proneness (BP) was measured to test the predictive validity of this measure in vigilance. All subjects monitored a VDT of uniform color for 30 min. They were asked to respond to 110 ms "long flickers" embedded in a matrix of 50 ms "short flickers" occurring at a rate of 15 per min. As expected, detection-emphasis subjects reported significantly higher workload. Overall performance regarding proportion of hits and A' was not impacted significantly by command emphasis, though an Emphasis x Bias interaction revealed that relaxation-liberal subjects performed more poorly than subjects in the remaining conditions. Finally, BP scores significantly predicted overall hits and A'. Results indicate that (1) much of what individuals find unpleasant about vigilance may lie with the demands implied by the initial instructions and (2) valid personality predictors of vigilance performance exist.”
p. 1317-1321
Venturino, Michael, Romano, Nathan J., Miller, Sheryl L., Murphy, Megan and Coffey, Tara M. (1994): Dynamic Memory: Keeping Track of Continually Changing Information. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1317-1321.
“The requirement to remember continuously changing information places substantial demands on the human operator's working memory system. Previous research (Yntema & Mueser, 1960) found that in keeping track of dynamically changing information, humans' memory for changing information was better when they kept track of many different attributes of a single object than when they kept track of the identical attribute of many different objects. Due to a confound in the Yntema and Mueser experiment, the unique and combined effects of information organization and similarity-based interference cannot be determined, limiting the information about dynamic memory. This experiment represents an attempt to overcome this limitation by assessing the roles of organization and similarity-based interference in dynamic memory. The experimental task was a keeping track task in which a series of changing attribute values were presented sequentially, and subjects were required to remember the most recent update for each attribute. Three factors were manipulated in the experiment: number of "objects" (one vs many objects), type of attribute (same vs different), and memory load (2, 4, or 6 attributes to remember). Results showed that as memory load increased, keeping track performance in the many-object condition decreased to a greater extent than in the one-object condition. Also, as memory load increased, accuracy decreased at a greater rate for the same-attribute condition than for the different-attribute condition. The effect size for attribute similarity was much larger than that for number of objects. It was concluded that similarity-based interference is quite destructive to dynamic memory. It appears that the cost of attribute similarity far outweighs the benefits of organizing the continually-changing attributes. Such results have implications for structuring tasks and aiding memory in situations where operators must remember information in dynamically changing environments.”
p. 1322-1325
Wilson, Glenn F. and Hankins, Thomas (1994): EEG and Subjective Measures of Private Pilot Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1322-1325.
“Complex systems can place high levels of mental demand on human operators and methods of assessing these demands are needed. Subjective and performance metrics are typically employed while psychophysiological assessment has been used to a more limited extent. In this study, civilian pilots flew a single engine propeller aircraft on a flight profile designed to produce several levels of cognitive workload using VFR and IFR conditions. Subjective and brain wave (EEG) measures were used to assess mental workload. EEG theta band activity was sensitive to a wider range of workload levels and was more sensitive than the alpha and beta bands or the subjective reports. The alpha and beta bands reliably discriminated between ground and night segments as did the subjective data.”
p. 1326-1330
Wiebe, Eric N. (1994): Evaluation of Alternative Methods of Representing Three-Dimensional Objects on Computer Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1326-1330.
“Due to the increased use of 3D modeling software in the design and manufacture of products, careful evaluation needs to be made as to how the 3D model is represented on the computer display. The experiment's hypothesis is that both rate in which projections of a rotating object are presented and whether the object is rendered as a line drawing or shaded will effect the mental representation of the object. The experiment factorially crossed three levels of projection presentation rate with two levels of rendering (line drawing vs. shaded). All levels of both independent variables were between subjects. The subjects' score on a mental rotations test score was used as a covariant. The subjects each viewed 40 displays representing different rotating objects and identified the objects through a forced choice pair selection. RT and error rate were measured for each selection trial. Data on a total of 72 subjects was analyzed using the ANOVA procedure. The results of the experiment showed a significant main effect of the rate of presentation variable on RT. The results also showed a significant main effect of the rendering variable on error rate. No interaction was found between the two independent variables. The results indicate varying presentation rate can be an effective tool in allowing faster interpretations of an object. It is also recommended that the display technique be carefully matched to the complexity of the object being displayed and the capabilities of the computer being used to display it.”
p. 133-136
Schieber, Frank and Kline, Donald W. (1994): Age Differences in the Legibility of Symbol Highway Signs as a Function of Luminance and Glare Level: A Preliminary Report. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 133-136.
“Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of adult aging upon the legibility of simulated symbol highway signs. Each experiment employed a different set of lighting conditions: (1) daytime luminance, (2) nighttime luminance, and (3) nighttime luminance with glare. Young (ages 18-25) and middle-aged (ages 40-55) observers demonstrated small reductions in legibility when luminance was reduced from daytime to nighttime levels. However, older (ages 65-79) observers demonstrated marked losses in legibility distance with reductions in sign luminance. The introduction of a glare source (equivalent to approaching automobile headlights at 30 m) reduced sign legibility distance for the older observers but had no deleterious effects upon their young and middle-aged counterparts. The relative magnitude of the observed age, luminance and glare effects appeared to be equivalent across all signs examined.”
p. 1331-1335
Konrad, Christopher M., Kramer, Arthur F. and Watson, Stephen E. (1994): A Comparison of Sequential and Spatial Displays in a Complex Monitoring Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1331-1335.
“A sequential or RAP COM display was compared to a more conventional spatial display as subjects monitored dynamically changing sets of numbers and responded to occasional target stimuli. In an effort to equate the stimulus-response compatibility of the two displays subjects responded to the targets with a chord keyboard. We examined the influence of display duration on the performance with the RAP COM and spatial formats by presenting the stimuli at three different durations, 400, 800 and 1200 msec. The influence of practice on performance with the RAP COM and spatial displays was also investigated. Targets were responded to more quickly in the RAP COM than in the spatial displays at each of the three presentation durations and across over 2000 trials of practice. Accuracy was influenced by the display presentation duration. Accuracy was higher for the RAP COM than the spatial display at the 800 msec stimulus presentation duration. Accuracy was statistically equivalent for the RAP COM and spatial display format at the 400 and 1200 msec display durations, although there was a trend for lower accuracy for the RAP COM display at the faster presentation duration. Interestingly, the lower accuracy for the RAP COM display format at the 400 msec presentation duration appears to be due to illusory conjunctions. Our results will be discussed in terms of the utility of sequential or RAP COM displays in complex, real-world settings.”
p. 1336-1340
Hess, Stephen M., Detweiler, Mark C. and Ellis, R. Darin (1994): The Effects of Display Layout on Monitoring and Updating System States. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1336-1340.
“Information-display issues are described in the context of a complex memory-updating task similar to Yntema's (1963). Subjects performed the updating task with two types of graphic interfaces. In one condition, the interface provided invariant spatial information which could be used to support task performance; in the second condition, the same information was presented in a single spatial location. The results suggest that 1) the mapping effect (one-to-many vs. many-to-one) found by Yntema did not occur when the response sets being updated were composed of the same response alternatives; 2) the type of screen layout used to support the updating task had a large impact on both accuracy and time to respond; and 3) the type of screen layout used interacted with the task's cognitive demands, including length of lag between an update and a response, and the number of variables being monitored. These results suggest that the design of information displays requires consideration of the abstract representational requirements of the task being supported.”
p. 1341
Bennett, Kevin B. (1994): Animated Mimic Displays. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 1341.
“Animated mimic displays represent the physical structure of a system, including: 1) the important components, systems, or subsystems, 2) the physical/causal connections between components, and 3) the flow of information or resources through these connections. This type of display has the potential to improve both the effectiveness of real-time performance and the efficiency of training. A research program has been initiated to determine critical factors in the design of animated mimic displays. The initial display designs were based on examples of animated mimic displays found in the literature. Four sets of psychophysical experiments investigated 1) chromatic/luminance contrast, 2) spatial/temporal frequency, 3) contours/borders, and 4) stairstep/sinusoidal waveforms. The first two sets of experiments revealed that existing designs were not effective. A theoretical explanation was developed and is discussed briefly. The second two sets of experiments investigated alternative display designs based, in part, upon these theoretical insights. The results indicate that the alternative designs will improve the effectiveness of animated mimic displays. A set of design guidelines are provided.”
p. 137-141
Wright, Ursula, Kumar, G. Major and Mital, Anil (1994): Reach Design Data for the Elderly. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 137-141.
“The increased life expectancy of the elderly may require substantial redesigning of environments in order to accommodate age related body changes. One of the most important aspects allowing the elderly to function independently is the ability to reach for items comfortably during daily activities. Designing for an independent elder requires knowledge of reach measurements that determines the optimal design of working/living environments. This paper provides reach capability design data of elderly males and females between 65 and 89 years of age. Results show that direct and indirect reach indicators decrease substantially above the age of 80. The elderly participating in this study were compared with younger cohorts, showing significantly lower reach capabilities. This indicates the necessity of considering anthropometric data, such as reach, to design for the elderly. The need is particularly dire for those above 80 years of age.”
p. 142-146
Rogers, Wendy A., Gilbert, D. Kristen and Cabrera, Elizabeth Fraser (1994): An In-Depth Analysis of Automatic Teller Machine Usage by Older Adults. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 142-146.
“The present study investigated the usage of Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) by older adults. We conducted 100 telephone interviews of older adults wherein we queried subjects about their frequency of ATM usage. From this pool of individuals we chose eight frequent users and eight intermediate users to participate in an in-depth structured interview. The phone and structured interviews provided detailed information about usage patterns and general ATM knowledge of older adults. The interviewing technique provided insight into the concerns of older adults and the problems they encounter when using ATM technology. The results of this study provide information relevant to design and training for ATMs. Although the data are derived from a sample of older adults, any improvements of design, safety, or training will be beneficial to the population of users as a whole.”
p. 147-151
Huey, Richard W., Buckley, Dawn S. and Lerner, Neil D. (1994): Audible Performance of Smoke Alarm Sounds. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 147-151.
“This paper concerns a study aimed at selection of alarm sounds with improved audible performance characteristics for older listeners over current conventional residential smoke detectors. Many current residential smoke detectors possess alarms that have their primary frequency peak in the 4000 Hz region of the audible spectrum. Additionally, many of these alarms are constant instead of providing temporal modulation of the signal. This study analyzed a variety of alternative sounds for selection as a better choice for an "age sensitive" smoke alarm signal. The study presented a battery of candidate sounds to pairs of subjects aged 65 and older with varying levels of hearing impairment (O to 45 dB) in their own homes to see which sounds performed best in terms of detection, localization, and perceived attention-getting value. Subjects were placed in various location- and masking-based conditions within their homes during listening periods and subjected to sounds played at a constant level. A computerized system collected response data as the battery of stimuli was presented. The data showed a fairly predictable positive trend in detection and localization performance level as the frequency of the stimuli decreased from 4000 Hz to 500 Hz. The data also showed that pulsed signals were more detectable than steady alarms.”
p. 152-154
Eberhard, John W., Olsen, Erik C. B., Andre, Anthony D., Ball, Karlene, Hunt, Linda, Harwood, Kim and Corn, Anne (1994): Assessing the Older Driver: An Interdisciplinary Approach. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 152-154.
“Numerous groups of professionals have been studying driving and aging for many years, including human factors researchers, occupational therapists, optometrists, and special educators. Unfortunately, however, this diverse set of professionals has not joined efforts in developing comprehensive assessment techniques for older drivers. This panel represents an important step toward supporting an interdisciplinary approach to elderly driver assessment.”
p. 155-159
Clark, Jennifer L. and Rogers, Wendy A. (1994): Memory Skill Acquisition for Young and Old Adults: Does Training Order Affect Learning?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 155-159.
“The purpose of the present experiment was to identify the effects of altering the order of training for a memory search task in old and young adults. We provided subjects with extensive practice on consistently mapped (CM) and variably mapped (VM) versions of a memory search task. Half of the subjects in each age group received CM training followed by VM training and the other half received VM first followed by CM. Based on previous findings (Fisk, Rogers, and Giambra, 1990), in which older adults did not switch to a more efficient search strategy (i.e., from serial exhaustive to serial self-terminating) we predicted that older subjects who received VM training first would not adopt the most efficient strategy on subsequent CM training compared to old adults who received the CM training first. The results supported our prediction: namely, the comparison slopes were shallower (i.e., more efficient) for the older adults who received CM training first, relative to those who received VM training prior to the CM training. Order of practice did not significantly affect the performance of the young adults. These data have important implications for the development of training programs in which subjects will be required to learn several task components.”
p. 16-20
Wickens, Christopher D., Liang, Chia-Chin, Prevett, Tyler and Olmos, Oscar (1994): Egocentric and Exocentric Displays for Terminal Area Navigation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 16-20.
“Two experiments are reported that contrast egocentric vs. exocentric features of perspective (3D) or plan view (2D) electronic map displays for supporting local guidance and global awareness. Pilots used these displays for a simulated approach to a landing along a curved approach, through a terrain-filled region. The task was simulated on an IRIS visual graphics workstation. In Experiment 1, a rotating vs. fixed-map display was experimentally crossed with a 2D vs. 3D (perspective map) view as 24 pilots were assessed in their ability to maintain the flight path (local guidance) and demonstrate global awareness of surrounding terrain features. Rotating displays supported better flight path guidance in both the lateral and vertical axes, and did not substantially harm performance on the task of recalling the location of terrain features. Map rotation also supported better performance in locating features from an ego-referenced but not a world-referenced perspective. 3D displays provided a slight advantage for lateral guidance but a substantial cost for vertical control, because of the ambiguity with which perspective viewing depicted precise altitude. In Experiment 2, 10 pilots flew with the rotating 2D display, and with an improved version of the rotating 3D display, using color coding to reduce the ambiguity of altitude information. Vertical control improved as a result of the 3D display design improvement, but lateral control did not. Assessment of terrain awareness on a map reconstruction task revealed marginally better performance with the 2D map. The results are discussed in terms of the costs and benefits of presenting information in 3D, ego-referenced format for both local guidance and global awareness tasks.”
p. 160-164
Gilbert, D. Kristen and Rogers, Wendy A. (1994): Age Differences on a Paired-Associates Task: How Does Practice Type and Order Affect Training?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 160-164.
“The purpose of this research was to determine if manipulating the order and type of practice would affect the outcome of training for both young and older adults. We examined age differences in performance on a paired-associates task in which type and order of practice were manipulated. Two versions of a noun-pair associates task were used; in the consistent mapping (CM) version the noun-pairs did not change from trial to trial; in the varied mapping version (VM) the noun-pairs changed from trial to trial. The CM task allowed the subjects to learn the noun-pairs whereas the VM task required that subjects always refer to a key in order to perform the task. Two groups of subjects were trained and the order in which they received the CM and VM versions was manipulated between groups. There were group differences in initial performance on the CM task for both young and older adults. The data indicate that having performed the task at all provided some benefit in terms of reaction time. The subjects were able to acquire the skill of performing the task in the first version they performed and this skill acquisition aided their subsequent performance. In addition, the benefits of prior practice were longer-lasting for older adults relative to young adults.”
p. 165-169
Cooper, Brian P. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1994): Age Similarities in Complex Memory Search: An Extension of Dual Process Theory. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 165-169.
“Understanding age-related similarities and differences in development of cognitive skill is important as it can inform theories of cognitive aging as well as serve the pragmatic value of informing those individuals who are developing age-related interventions for numerous activities of daily living. We investigated both the performance and learning of skilled memory search, a task that has shown age-related similarity in performance if sufficient consistent practice is provided, to determine if training guidelines for this class of processing activities is applicable to both young and old adults. Old and young adults received memory search training, and then the participants were transferred to untrained exemplars of the trained memory set categories. The results suggest that both young and old adults are, at least to some extent, learning at the semantic-category level. This study provides additional evidence that training guidelines derived from an automatic and controlled processing framework can be applied to an older adult population in tasks which have memory search components.”
p. 170-174
Humphrey, Darryl G., Kramer, Arthur F. and Gore, Sheryl S. (1994): Perceptual Organization and Grouping Factors: Age Related Effects. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 170-174.
“Older adults have evidenced a poorer ability to use grouping factors in such tasks as Embedded Figures, Incomplete Figures, and partial report. Difficulties in disambiguating the findings of these studies has left unanswered the cause of this age-related difference. By taking into account age-related differences in visual short-term memory, the results of the current study suggest that older adults maintain the ability to capitalize on the perceptual organization of the visual environment as a means of facilitating recall performance. These results have implications for the design of information displays, product labels, codes, and instructions.”
p. 175-179
Thomas, Bruce and McClelland, Ian (1994): The Development of a Touch Screen Based Communications Terminal. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 175-179.
“This paper discusses the design of a communications terminal for professional applications. The development work included visits to sites to capture requirements through interview and observation of working practices, and to get insight into typical communication tasks. A clear task focus was maintained during the design phase by using a dialogue description tool developed in-house to support the integration of the dialogue specification, the graphic design and the software design. Customer and operator feedback on the design was obtained. The success of the design can be attributed to a direct involvement of users in the development process and to the integration of different specialists in the development team.”
p. 180-184
Prussog, Angela, Muhlbach, Lothar and Bocker, Martin (1994): Telepresence in Videocommunications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 180-184.
“The paper discusses factors that affect the impression of telepresence in video-communications. Telepresence is experienced by interlocutors to the extent to which natural visual cues from the remote site are adequately transferred by the medium. The paper reports on two experimental Human Factors studies investigating the effects of various features of videoconferencing systems in terms of, inter alia, the conferees' impression of telepresence as well as user satisfaction and the willingness to use those systems. Within the framework of Experiment 1 the system features that were varied were the scale of representing the conferees (natural vs. reduced size) and the representation of the conferees' surroundings (small vs. large sector of the remote room). In Experiment 2 the system feature being tested was the stereoscopic representation of the conferees. Results showed that both the natural-size representation of conferees as well as the stereoscopic representation increase the impression of telepresence. The expected benefits of a representation of the conferees' surroundings could not be verified. Given a fixed size of the screen, the trade-off between the conferees' size and the representation of surroundings is in favor of the natural size representation.”
p. 185-189
Runde, Detlef and Bocker, Martin (1994): Stereoscopic Telepointing in Videocommunications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 185-189.
“Stereoscopic telepointing to be employed inter alia in cooperative telework applications yields many benefits but also poses a number of problems addressed in a study with 96 subjects under four different conditions. For two conditions, 3D-input devices were designed implementing different input metaphors. The 'Light Beam Metaphor' is analogous to pointing to objects with a slide show pointer or laser pointer. The 'Reference Space Metaphor' provides the users with the possibility of pointing to details of an object in such a way as if a re-sized model of the object was present in front of them and within reach of their hands. The other two conditions were stereoscopic and monoscopic control conditions without pointers. The subjects' task was to identify differences between a remote and a local object within a limited time. The results show that the Light Beam Metaphor pointer was easier to handle and conformed to a larger degree to the users' expectations, whereas the Reference Space Metaphor pointer received better subjective ratings on efficiency and Telepresence. The analysis of the results of all four conditions established the benefits of 3D over 2D representations for object-oriented communicative situations in terms of appeal and the impression of depth.”
p. 190-193
Sorce, James F., Lund, Arnold, Angiolillo, Joel S., Boggs, George J. and Sorce, James F. (1994): Human Factors Issues on the Information Highway. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 190-193.
“This past year has been unique as planning and construction of the infrastructure to bring interactive video services to homes, schools, and businesses has begun in earnest. Ground breaking activity on new applications that use this evolving infrastructure will be intense well into the next century. It is appropriate, therefore, to examine the human factors issues that are being identified in these early stages. The problems are large, and years of research will be required before they are resolved. This panel will bring together people working on the "information highway" to discuss the issues they have been facing during these early stages, as the forms the new applications and interfaces are going to take just begin to appear.”
p. 194
Roth, Emilie M. and Corker, Kevin M. (1994): Analysis and Modeling of Use of Procedures in Dynamic Worlds: Implications for the Design of Computer-Based Procedures. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 194.
“In dynamic high risk environments, such as aviation, air traffic control, and nuclear power plant operations, when emergencies arise, the burden of diagnosing and developing a response strategy in real time can be very high. One response to this problem that has been adopted in a number of domains is to develop preplanned response strategies in the form of procedures that the person-on-the-scene is expected to follow in dealing with the emergency. This symposium examines the cognitive demands inherent in responding to emergencies when procedures are available, and the implications for development of computer-based procedures and related decision-support systems.”
p. 195-199
Hoecker, Douglas G., Corker, Kevin M., Roth, Emilie M., Lipner, Melvin H. and Bunzo, Marilyn S. (1994): Man-Machine Design and Analysis System (MIDAS) Applied to a Computer-Based Procedure-Aiding System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 195-199.
“Difficult issues in design criteria confront the designers of human-computer interaction (HCI) implementations for future power plant control rooms. Such HCI-intensive control-room elements include "soft" controls and displays, computerized procedures, alarm presentations, and support for cooperative information-sharing among crewmembers. This shift in technology, from dedicated controls and displays in fixed locations to multifunction computer-driven operator workstations and wall displays, must focus not only on the required functionality of these interfaces, but also on their crafting and integration in such a way as to minimize the likelihood of operator error. With the objective of providing early insight into the cognitively error-prone consequences of selected interface dynamics, we are adapting a computer-based cognitive modeling tool, the Man-machine Integrated Design and Analysis System (MIDAS), to quantitatively model certain user requirements for operating different types of interfaces while dealing with high-consequence events in a control room setting. MIDAS was conceived and is being developed as a joint Army/NASA program a the NASA Ames Research Center to test different design approaches to computerizing the cockpits of advanced commercial and military aircraft This report presents preliminary results from a project to adapt the MIDAS tool to the nuclear control room domain. These results have enabled comparative observation of cognitive loading depending on whether a supervisor uses computerized procedures or paper procedures to direct crew response to a plant trip event. The results suggest that each technology for procedural support, in its current respective implementation, has its own strengths and weaknesses at different points in the control task dialog.”
p. 200-204
Roth, Emilie M. (1994): Operator Performance in Cognitively Complex Simulated Emergencies: Implications for Computer-Based Support Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 200-204.
“An empirical study was conducted examining operator performance in cognitively demanding simulated nuclear power plant emergencies. During emergencies operators follow highly prescriptive written procedures. The objectives of the study were to understand and document what role higher-level cognitive activities such as diagnosis, or more generally 'situation assessment,' play in guiding operator performance, given that operators utilize procedures in responding to the events. The study examined crew performance in two simulated emergencies. Up to 11 crews from each of two plants participated in two simulated emergencies for a total of 38 cases analyzed. Crew performance was videotaped and partial transcripts were produced and analyzed. The results revealed a number of instances where higher-level cognitive activities such as situation assessment and response planning enabled operators to handle aspects of the situation that were not fully addressed by the procedures. This paper describes these cases and discusses their implications for the design of computer-based support systems.”
p. 205-209
Converse, Sharolyn A. (1994): Operating Procedures: Do They Reduce Operator Errors?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 205-209.
“Computerized operating procedures have been suggested as a mechanism for reducing human error in nuclear power plants. The Computerized Procedures Manual (COPMA-II) is an electronic procedure system that can be used to execute procedures, to track progress through plant procedures, and to automatically monitor plant parameters. To evaluate the effectiveness of COPMA-II, eight teams of two licensed reactor operators operated a scaled pressurized water reactor under normal and accident conditions, using both COPMA-II and traditional paper procedures. Error rates, times to initiate procedures, times to complete procedures, and subjective estimates of workload were collected for each scenario. The most interesting finding of the study was that, for one accident scenario, performance with COPMA-II was twice as accurate as performance with paper procedures. However, operators initiated responses to both accident scenarios fastest with paper procedures. Procedure type did not moderate time to complete procedures.”
p. 21-25
Segal, Leon D. (1994): Actions Speak Louder Than Words: How Pilots Use Nonverbal Information for Crew Communications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 21-25.
“How does the design of an aircraft cockpit affect crew communication? The research described hereunder aimed at identifying aspects of design that play a critical role in task coordination, yet have heretofore been ignored. It is proposed that crewmembers coordinate the performance of tasks using visual, nonverbal, information that emerges from the interactions between individual pilots and the aircraft's systems. 24 airline pilots participated in a high-fidelity simulator experiment which compared the impact of three different types of interface on crew communication and coordination. Measurement included detailed video recording, and quantitative and expert performance evaluations. The data suggest that pilots visually monitor each other's performance of tasks, that visual monitoring is affected by the design of the interface, and that pilots rely on such nonverbal information for communication and coordination. The discussion looks at implications of these data to the design of workstations and cockpits.”
p. 210-214
Laughery, Ron and Persensky, J. (1994): Network Modeling of Nuclear Operator Procedures. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 210-214.
“Research and evaluation on human factors issues can be very expensive owing to 1) the high cost of running experiments and 2) high inter-team variability which makes it necessary to run large numbers of subjects to get stable estimates of performance. Increasingly, the engineering disciplines are looking towards computer modeling as a means of predicting performance as a function of engineering design. Human factors engineering has that goal as well. This paper presents the results of a validation study that evaluated a human performance modeling technology termed task network modeling. Task network models were built of a crew executing two emergency procedures and one normal procedure. For each of these three procedures, one model was built reflecting the use of paper procedures and one reflecting the use of computerized procedures. Model predictions were then compared to data on actual crews performing under identical conditions. In general, the model predictions were representative of actual performance, although a number of issues arose that should be addressed prior to using these models as a technical basis for regulatory action.”
p. 215-219
Nopachai, Suvit and Casali, Sherry Perdue (1994): The Impact of Group Decision Support Systems on Group Consensus Processes and Outcomes. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 215-219.
“An experiment was conducted to examine how the use of a group decision support system (GDSS) influences the formation of group consensus. In a task requiring group members to jointly prioritize a list of items, 12 groups of eight members each were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions involving different levels of technological meeting support: (1) a group decision support system, (2) a manual counterpart to the structure imposed by the GDSS, and (3) no structured support. Measures of group consensus and perceived consensus, decision quality and perceived decision quality, and perceived opportunity to express views were made. The results revealed that the measures of consensus, decision quality and perceived decision quality, and perceived opportunity to express views were all similar across the three levels of technology investigated. Only perceived consensus was found to vary across conditions. The practical implications of these results are discussed.”
p. 220-224
Sundstrom, Gunilla A. and Salvador, Anthony C. (1994): Cooperative Human-Computer Decision Making: An Experiment and Some Design Implications. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 220-224.
“Creating useful dialogues between human and automated decision makers (i.e., intelligent agents) is a critical design aspect of any effective decision support environment. However, surprisingly few studies have examined the various factors influencing the way a human decision maker interacts with various types of intelligent agents. In the present work, one such factor was examined, namely the confidence expressed by the agent about its own conclusions. Subjects were trained in a network management fault diagnosis task. They were then asked to accept or reject a fault diagnosis generated by the automated decision making agent. The automated decision maker presented its fault diagnosis with an associated confidence indication expressed as a probability. Subjects were required to decide whether to accept or reject the automated decision maker's diagnosis. To conceive an informed response, subjects were able to examine various types of information related to network performance. The results indicated that the higher the confidence level presented by the automated decision maker, the more likely it was that the human decision maker would accept the automatically generated diagnosis. Thus, the higher the confidence level of the automated decision maker, the more likely subjects were to accept a wrong decision. Moreover, subjects examined fewer pieces of information in situations when the automated decision maker expressed a high level of confidence.”
p. 225-229
Johannesen, Leila J., Cook, Richard I. and Woods, David D. (1994): Cooperative Communications in Dynamic Fault Management. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 225-229.
“The motivation for this research is to further theory on the development of artificial intelligence systems that function as "team players" in dynamic fault management applications. One challenge is effectively supporting the practitioner in understanding the assessments and actions of the intelligent system. The typical expert system approach to explanations is not well suited to the cognitive demands of dynamic fault management. In order to gain insight into effective cooperative interaction in dynamic fault management, we have undertaken a field of study of practitioners in one such domain, anesthesiology. We analyze the findings using the theoretical framework of a common ground and common frame of reference.”
p. 230-234
Davis, Elizabeth Thorpe, Corso, Gregory M., Barfield, Woodrow, Eggleston, Robert G., Ellis, Stephen, Ribarsky, Bill and Wickens, Christopher D. (1994): Human Perception and Performance in 3D Virtual Environments. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 230-234.
“Virtual environments have the potential to become very significant tools both in the civilian and military sectors. They offer a new human-computer interface in which users actively participate and are totally immersed in a computer-generated 3D virtual world. Important applications of virtual environments include the scientific visualization of complex data sets, the operation of remotely manipulated vehicles or teleoperators, the display of aircraft locations for air traffic control, simulated flight training, simulated driving training, teleoperated surgery as well as medical training and skill acquisition in surgery. Because virtual environments offer greater flexibility than most traditional HCI interfaces, those and other tasks may be better handled by virtual environments than by more traditional HCI interfaces. For example, virtual reality technology offers the capability of 3D or 2D representations, egocentric or exocentric 3D viewpoint, stereoscopic or monoscopic views, dynamically changing or relatively static representations as well as the availability of multi-sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory, and tactile inputs) and of perceptual-motor interactions. Yet, current VR systems still suffer from technical limitations that may restrict their usefulness. These technical limitations include poor spatio-temporal resolution of visual, auditory, and haptic images; cross-sensory image registration; and inaccuracy of head and eye tracking devices. Some of these limitations may be overcome by advances in the technology while other limitations may be overcome by cleverly adapting the VE system to exploit the capabilities and limitations of human perception. In all applications of virtual environments, human spatial perception plays a crucial role. For example, distance, elevation, and azimuth information is used to determine where objects are located. Yet, the perceived spatial location of an object may be ambiguous within a given display. Stereoscopic displays can provide humans with visual cues to disambiguate this information. But, there are other ways to resolve this ambiguity, such as the use of other visual cues or of other sensory modalities (e.g., auditory and haptic senses). Moreover, determination of the "best" perceptual cues and the "best" sensory modalities may be task dependent.”
p. 235-239
Perlman, Gary and Swan, J. Edward (1994): Relative Effects of Color-, Texture-, and Density-Coding on Visual Search Performance and Subjective Preference. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 235-239.
“Previously, it had been found that texture-coding was ineffective at reducing search time (Perlman & Swan, 1993). In the experiment reported here, 16 subjects searched for blank-, color-, texture-, and density-coded targets of varying complexity in a naturalistic task. The data showed that all non-blank methods were significantly and about equally more effective at reducing search time than blank-coding (no coding). The difference of outcome with previous results is explained by task simplification and by the control of possibly confounding factors. The difference suggests that coding techniques using texture, and possibly other methods, should be evaluated in context. The similar performance of color-, texture-, and density-coding is explained by the use of equal-saturation and equal-brightness colors. Recommendations for the design of effective coding methods and for future research are discussed.”
p. 240-244
Merwin, David H., Vincow, Michelle A. and Wickens, Christopher D. (1994): Visual Analysis of Scientific Data: Comparison of 3D Topographic, Color, and Gray Scale Displays in a Feature Detection Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 240-244.
“Several display techniques were compared for representing scientific data in the context of a feature detection task. The data sets were rendered on a Silicon Graphics workstation using four display formats: linearized gray scale; rainbow scale; reduced hue (blue-green-yellow-white) scale; and a 3D-topographic formal viewed in stereo. The task involved searching for features that were embedded in scientific data sets consisting of two spatial and one scalar variable. Data sets were drawn from three scientific domains: Landsat, medical MRI, and global atmospheric data bases. Two types of features were embedded within the data sets: circular (blob-like) discontinuities, and linear (cliff-like) discontinuities. Results showed a general advantage for the gray scale, and a marked disadvantage for the 3D-topographic format in both accuracy and response latency. Performance in the two color scale formats was intermediate, with the reduced hue scale supporting faster, if not more accurate performance than the full rainbow scale. Performance differences were found across data base domains, as well. Directions for future research are discussed.”
p. 245-249
Zhai, Shumin and Milgram, Paul (1994): Asymmetrical Spatial Accuracy in 3D Tracking. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 245-249.
“This paper reports on asymmetrical spatial accuracy of human subjects in tracking of an object which moves randomly with 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOF) in a 3D environment. It was found that, for translational errors, RMS deviations in the depth (Z) direction were 40% higher than those in the horizontal (X) direction, for an experimental display which provided binocular disparity (stereopsis), perspective and partial occlusion cues. In general, translational tracking errors in the vertical (Y) direction were greater than those in the X direction and smaller than those in the Z direction. In early stages of practice, vertical errors were similar to those in the Z direction, but as learning progressed, errors in the X and Y dimensions converged. These finding were consistent across two types of controllers and different tracking paths in the 3D environment. It would appear that horizontal movement requires higher attentional resource priority over vertical movement in such a tracking task.”
p. 250-254
Utsumi, Akira, Milgram, Paul, Takemura, Haruo and Kishino, Fumio (1994): Investigation of Errors in Perception of Stereoscopically Presented Virtual Object Locations in Real Display Space. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 250-254.
“This paper describes studies on perception of virtual object locations. It explores the behavior of some factors related to depth perception, especially the effect of inter-pupillary distance (IPD) mismatch and the interplay of image blur and binocular disparity. IPD mismatch (which is caused by errors in estimation of the parameter) results in a certain perceptual error of virtual objects' depth. Blur of images is also a source of error in depth representation. It was found, in some cases, to be a very strong depth cue. The results of a series of experiments conducted on IPD mismatch and image blur are also presented.”
p. 255
Bias, Randolph G. and Gillan, Douglas J. (1994): User Interface Navigation: And a Model for Explicit Research-Practice Interaction. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 255.
p. 256-260
Gillan, Douglas J. (1994): Cognitive Psychophysics and Mental Models. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 256-260.
“With the increased emphasis on incorporating users' mental models in design of interfaces comes an increased need for instruments for measuring mental models. Two frequently-used instruments for measuring people's mental representations of physical space are drawing a map and rating the distances between pairs of points in the space. The assumption underlying the present research was that mental representations of space (M{sub:i}) are transformed to become a subject's response (R{sub:i}), yielding the following functions: R{sub:drawi} =f{sub:r{sub:d}}(M{sub:i}) + e{sub:d} (for drawing a map), R{sub:ratei} =f{sub:r}(M{sub:i}) + e{sub:r} (for making category ratings), and R{sub:navigatei} =f{sub:n}(M{sub:i}) + e{sub:n} (for navigating). If each of these functions were equivalent, then the correlations among the different measurement methods should be high. Subjects either drew maps in two sessions, provided category ratings of the distances between pairs of locations in two sessions, or drew maps in one session and rated distances in a second session. The correlations were significantly lower when subjects switched between rating and drawing than when they performed the same response in both sessions. These data suggest that the functions relating the mental representation to a response differ between drawing and rating. The discussion focuses on methods for measuring mental maps and the use of mental map data in designing spatial interfaces (including interfaces to information spaces).”
p. 26-30
Hutton, R. J. B., Flach, J. M., Brickman, B. J., Dominguez, C. O., Hettinger, L., Haas, M. and Russell, C. (1994): Keeping in Touch: Kinesthetic-Tactile Information and Fly-by-Wire. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 26-30.
“Fly-by-wire control systems in advanced cockpits provide an opportunity to simplify the manual control demands on the pilot. However, this simplification may be at the expense of distancing the pilot from direct contact with important sources of information. Control loading systems provide the opportunity for enhancing the capacity of the stick as an information channel, providing the pilot with information about the critical aircraft state variables required for control. In this study parameters governing the movement of the pilot's control stick (i.e. the stiffness of a spring-centered stick) were dynamically adjusted to be proportional to moment-to-moment states of the simulated vehicle (i.e. roll velocity). The hypothesis was that the "feel" of the dynamically varying stick would provide control information leading to more precise control performance in a single-axis roll tracking task. RMS error results did not support this hypothesis. The result is discussed in the context of an ongoing research program to examine strategies for information integration in advanced cockpits.”
p. 261-265
Cooke, Nancy J. and Rowe, Anna L. (1994): Evaluating Mental Model Elicitation Methods. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 261-265.
“Researchers have developed and applied a number of methods for measuring mental models. Unfortunately not only is the mental model construct ill-defined, but the basic research associated with it offers little guidance concerning the selection of a method for a particular application. In this paper a program of research is presented that is designed address this shortcoming. Specifically, the research involves a comparative evaluation of methods to measure mental models on the basis of the relationship between the method's output (i.e., the mental model) and the criterion of primary importance to the problem (e.g., task performance, user acceptance). It is assumed that a method should be selected on the basis of its ability to generate output that is predictive of the criterion of interest. It is likely that because the methods tap different aspects of a mental model, they will predict performance well on some tasks and criteria, but not others. As an example of this approach, data are presented that help to select the best method for measuring technicians' mental models of an electronics troubleshooting task.”
p. 266-270
Hillinger, Michael and Leu, Donald J. (1994): Guiding Instruction in Hypermedia. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 266-270.
“While hypermedia can provide flexible and rapid access to information in multiple mediums its navigation can be daunting to an unfamiliar user. This paper describes a prototype hypermedia system for training the components of a turbine engine. Designed as a content-rich hypermedia substrate combined with an independent guide, the system provides the novice with structure without impeding exploration. Results of a comparative study indicate that users unfamiliar with the topic learn more when the guide is available while users already comfortable with turbine concepts learn targeted information better without the guide.”
p. 271-274
Lund, Arnold (1994): Navigating on the Information Highway. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 271-274.
“The "information highway" is being created now, and the design task is monumental. Some of the most critical problems in designing a navigation environment have never been addressed before, and developers are demanding that either we (as human interface designers) supply answers now or they will make up their own answers. There is too little time and there are too few resources to fully explore interesting theoretical issues, and yet the results of such exploration (if on the right topics) could be critically important. This paper will review some of the practical design issues that Ameritech has identified as being important in defining a navigation environment, and approaches we have taken to those design issues. These approaches have been shaped by a lack of design guidance in some areas, and a finite set of resources (especially time). The paper will also identify directions where research would be useful, and time frames during which the results will still be valuable.”
p. 275-279
Hale, Joseph P. and Dittmar, Mary Lynne (1994): Virtual Reality as a Human Factors Design Analysis Tool for Architectural Spaces -- Control Rooms to Space Stations I: Objective Measures. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 275-279.
“One class of Virtual Reality (VR) applications is as a Human Factors design analysis tool for work areas and other architectural spaces. A study was conducted to compare subjects' qualitative and quantitative judgments of two "real" world control rooms at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and their corresponding virtual counterparts. The overall Independent Variables (IVs) were World (Real/Virtual) and Room (PCR/SIM) with Gender and World Order (Virtual-Real/Real-Virtual) as blocking variables. Nested within Room were range and relative range estimations. Range estimations were comprised of two IVs: 1) Item (Object/Surface) and 2) the Item's Range from the observer (Near/Far). The relative range estimations were comprised of two IVs: 1) Field-of-View (FOV) (Same/Different, i.e., whether or not the subject can see both objects simultaneously in the same FOV) and 2) the objects' Distance from the observer (Close/Away). There appears little difference between real and virtual worlds in one's ability to differentiate and estimate gross distances and to discriminate small relative range differentials within the same FOV. For different FOVs, this discrimination ability starts to deteriorate in the real world and is lost in the virtual world. There is also a clear World main effect of increased time to make judgments in the virtual world. The different perceptions, and the longer response times, point to a level of filtering occurring in the virtual environment that must be carefully considered when deciding where and how to use VR as a Human Factors analytical tool.”
p. 280-284
Dittmar, Mary Lynne and Hale, Joseph P. (1994): Virtual Reality as a Human Factors Design Analysis Tool for Architectural Spaces -- Control Rooms to Space Stations II: Subjective Measures. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 280-284.
“The Architectural Space Questionnaire (ASQ) was developed and employed in order to assess subjects' impressions of four different environments (two real and two virtual rooms) at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. The ASQ consists of 18 adjective pairs, arrayed in a 7-point, Likert scale format. Subjects first participated in a variety of distance estimation tasks in the Spacelab Payload Control Room and the Simulation Control Room and in their virtual reality (VR) analogs. After their experience in each room, subjects responded to the ASQ, selecting one value on each adjective pair continuum which best described their impression of the room they were in. The results indicated that the ASQ is sensitive to structural differences between real rooms. Differences between virtual rooms were minimal, possibly due to the absence of visual cues such as lighting and texture in that environment. Implications for the use of VR as a design tool are explored.”
p. 285-289
Gillan, Douglas J. and LaSalle, S. Mark (1994): A Componential Model of Human Interaction with Graphs. III. Spatial Orientation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 285-289.
“The Mixed Arithmetic-Perceptual (MA-P) model of graph comprehension proposes that graph users apply combinations of component processes -- including Searching for indicators, Encoding the value of indicators, performing Arithmetic Operations on the values, making Spatial Comparisons among the indicators, and Responding -- when they answer questions from a graph. The model further suggests that the combination and order of the components that the user applies depends on a user's task and the type of graph. The present research investigated the use of another component process -- mental rotation -- in interacting with star graphs. Subjects used two star graphs to answer comparison and difference questions in which the differences in orientation of the indicators in question varied from 0 to 288{deg}. The results showed a nonmonotonic change in response time with the difference in orientation. The discussion addresses the effects of mental rotation in reading displays and the role that rotation may play in the hierarchy of graph effectiveness proposed by Cleveland and McGill.”
p. 290-294
Zhang, Xudong, Liu, Yili and Chaffin, Don (1994): Frame of Reference in Posture Specification for Computer-Aided Ergonomic Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 290-294.
“An experiment was conducted to examine the effect of the congruency between the reference frame adopted to perceive and record postures and the one employed in a computer-aided ergonomics software on human posture specification performance. The role that the interface can play in enhancing the congruency was also investigated. The subjects were presented with the photographs of a working posture, and were required to manipulate the human stick figures generated by the ergonomics software to match the posture in the photographs. The experiment showed that the congruency played a significant role in facilitating the performance of posture specification for ergonomic analysis. It also demonstrated a clear advantage of using a 3-D humanoid display to improve the congruency when it is not achievable in the pre-analysis posture data-collection. Implications for ergonomic job analysis and ergonomics software design are discussed.”
p. 295-299
Gong, Qing and Salvendy, Gavriel (1994): Design of Skill-Based Adaptive Interface: The Effect of a Gentle Push. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 295-299.
“To accommodate individual skill differences in using a computer interface, a skill adaptive interface was designed and tested. Current human-computer interaction modes can be classified into two types, recall and recognition based interfaces. They have different memory requirements and generally allow different operating speeds and learning time. However, a static combination of the two interface modes has drawbacks. The dynamic skill adaptive interface introduced in this study tries to eliminate these problems without sacrificing the advantages from either interface modes by gently 'pushing' users to switch to the appropriate interface mode. Experiment showed that the adaptive interface can yield significant better performances than the static hybrid interface for certain groups of users.”
p. 300-304
Robertson, Gretchen L. and Hix, Deborah (1994): User Interface Design Guidelines for Computer Accessibility by Mentally Retarded Adults. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 300-304.
“An exploratory three-phase study examined the ability of adults diagnosed as moderately developmentally disabled to successfully use a personal computer, input devices preferred, and user interface design factors to be considered when designing or selecting applications for this population. Phase I observed the reaction of the participants, none of whom had ever used a computer, to a graphical user interface. In Phase II usability tests compared the mouse, the trackball, and the touchscreen to gather heuristic data on input device preference and develop user interface design guidelines for applications for the target population. Phase III tested the guidelines by developing two prototype games: "Shopping," designed to teach money-handling skills, and "Getting Dressed," to teach a basic life skill. Phase I showed that participants liked and understood the graphical user interface. All could use the touchscreen, and most could use the mouse. Phase II usability testing found that the mouse was preferred over the touchscreen and the trackball, although its drag-drop times were longer. Reasons given were less fatigue and greater control. Phase III found participants preferred screens that allowed them to control the action, that quick or unexpected screen responses were upsetting, and that strong, realistic visual feedback was important. The study is seen as a first step in developing guidelines to make the computer accessible to those with moderate developmental disability.”
p. 305-309
Miller, Marta A. and Stimart, Reynold P. (1994): The User Interface Design Process: The Good, the Bad, & We Did What We Could in Two Weeks. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 305-309.
“Conventional wisdom inside human factors circles says that the integration of user interface design processes into the software development cycle is the best way to improve the usability of software products. While there is no problem convincing human factors practitioners of this, frequently there is still a need to demonstrate the effectiveness of user interface processes to product development teams and management. Mayhew (1992) suggests that it is not enough to be able to apply human factors knowledge. Successful user interface design must include buy-in from outside of the user interface organization. To demonstrate the effectiveness of a user interface design program, data from usability tests on three versions of a product were analyzed. The oldest version of the product was developed without the inclusion of any user interface design processes. The second version of the product had minimal involvement of user interface practitioners late in the development cycle. The newest version of the product was developed with the user interface design processes fully integrated into the software development cycle. The data indicate that user interface design processes do impact usability, as measured by speed, accuracy, and subjective measures. Furthermore, user interface processes which are part of the software development cycle, as opposed to just a side effort by user interface practitioners, seem to have a much greater impact on usability.”
p. 31-35
Tham, Mingpo and Kramer, Arthur (1994): Attentional Control and Piloting Experience. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 31-35.
“The present study investigated differences in attentional abilities between student and instructor pilots. Twenty-four student and thirty-one instructor pilots were administered a battery of attention tasks in an effort to determine whether attentional abilities would co-vary with the level of piloting experience. The tasks that the pilots performed included: the response compatibility task, the negative priming task, the inhibition of return task, a timesharing task, feature and conjunction visual search tasks, and the dichotic listening task. Instructor pilots displayed evidence of more efficient task switching, and focused attention than novice pilots. On the other hand, instructors and student pilots were equally facile at visual scanning and covert shifts of spatial attention. The results of the study suggest that novice and experienced pilots differ across a variety of attentional operations.”
p. 310-314
Watts, Jennifer (1994): Navigation in the Computer Medium: A Cognitive Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 310-314.
“The goal of this research is to provide a cognitive analysis of navigation in the computer medium. As the complexity of computerized information systems increases, interface designers face the formidable challenge of supporting navigation within these systems to allow users to quickly obtain information relevant to their tasks and goals. Instead of focusing solely on the comparison of a small subset of proposed techniques or theories for aiding navigation, this study investigates how people handle navigation within the natural context of a familiar computer environment, and reveals processes that can be better supported in order to aid navigation. Both a field study and a field experiment were conducted. The results of these studies provide evidence to support previous navigation-related theories and contribute to a pattern of navigation behavior that has been observed in other domains like anesthesiology and nuclear power. In addition to describing the characteristics of the computer medium that influence people's ability to navigate, this paper will also discuss typical navigation problems that arise in this medium, and how people change their behavior and adapt to computer systems to overcome these problems.”
p. 315-319
Hefley, William E., Buie, Elizabeth, Lynch, Gene F., Muller, Michael J., Hoecker, Douglas G., Carter, Jim and Roth, J. Thomas (1994): Integrating Human Factors with Software Engineering Practices. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 315-319.
“Engineering processes and methodologies used in building tomorrow's systems must place a greater emphasis on designing usable systems that meet the needs of the systems' users and their tasks. This paper identifies the need for defining human factors and human-computer interaction (HCI) engineering activities that contribute to the design, development, and evaluation of usable and useful interactive systems, and presents a rationale for integrating these activities with software engineering and incorporating them into the system life cycle.”
p. 320-324
McAlindon, Peter Joseph (1994): The Development and Evaluation of the Keybowl: A Study on an Ergonomically Designed Alphanumeric Input Device. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 320-324.
“This paper provides a description and discloses preliminary findings of a newly designed alphanumeric keyboard called the Keybowl. The Keybowl was designed and developed to provide a solution to the multi-million dollar a year problem of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) as it relates to typing. The Keybowl totally eliminates finger movement, minimizes wrist movement, and uses the concept of concurrent independent inputs (a.k.a. chording) in which two domes are moved laterally to type. Initial results indicate that users of the Keybowl typed an average of 52% of their regular keyboard speed in as little as five hours. In regard to ergonomic advantage, flexion/extension wrist movements have been reduced by an average of 81.5% while movements in the ulnar/radial plane were reduced by an average of 48%.”
p. 325-329
Barry, Tim, Solz, Tom, Reising, John and Williamson, Dave (1994): The Use of Word, Phrase, and Intent Accuracy as Measures of Connected Speech Recognition Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 325-329.
“Eleven subjects participated in a study designed to test the accuracy of a newer-generation connected speech recognition system using a 49 word vocabulary likely to be used in an aircraft cockpit environment. The 49 vocabulary words were used to create 392 test phrases. These phrases were divided into three groups: Complex phrases, which contain more than five words, and two groups of Simple phrases, which contain 5 words or less. The simple phrases were divided into Simple Alternate and Simple No-Alternate phrases, depending on whether or not the phrase was the only one in the entire vocabulary capable of carrying out a particular action once recognition occurred. Performance of the recognition system was measured with three accuracy statistics: Word accuracy, the most commonly reported statistic in speech recognition research, phrase accuracy, which is gaining popularity in connected speech recognition research, and intent accuracy, which is probably the most relevant statistic that could be reported in research of this type. Significantly different word, phrase, and intent accuracy results were obtained for the three different phrase types.”
p. 330-334
MacKenzie, I. Scott, Nonnecke, R. Blair, McQueen, J. Craig, Riddersma, Stan and Meltz, Malcolm (1994): A Comparison of Three Methods of Character Entry on Pen-Based Computers. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 330-334.
“Methods for entering text on pen-based computers were compared with respect to speed, accuracy, and user preference. Fifteen subjects entered text on a digitizing display tablet using three methods: hand printing, QWERTY-tapping, and ABC-tapping. The tapping methods used display-based keyboards, one with a QWERTY layout, the other with two alphabetic rows of 13 characters.”
p. 335-339
Alteras-Webb, Sabina and Dekker, Debra K. (1994): Measuring Perceived Task Difficulty Using Magnitude Estimation: A Demonstration and Replication. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 335-339.
“The proliferation of sedentary, more cognitively demanding computer-mediated work, calls attention to the need for methods to measure mental work load. The prevent research describes two experiments in which participants performed a machine paced task of entering five and/or nine digit zip codes into a computer. The zip code data was prevented on a computer screen for twelve four minute trials where the rate of zip code presentation varied from trial to trial. Using the psychophysical scaling method of magnitude estimation, participants made a judgment of task difficulty after each trial period. In Experiment 1, four females participated in a repeated measures within-subjects design performing each digit task condition for five consecutive days. In Experiment 2, a between-subjects design was adopted where 42 females performed either the five or the nine digit data-entry for only one testing session. Regression analyses using the independent variable of stimulus presentation rate and the dependent variable of judgments of perceived difficulty resulted in R{squared}s of .90 or better for both digit conditions in both experiments. T-tests were conducted to see if different task parameters would affect difficulty judgments; these were statistically significant to the .001 level in both experiments. The results support the notion that magnitude estimation is a reliable method for scaling subjective perceptions of difficulty, which may be an important component of mental workload.”
p. 340-344
Schryver, Jack C. (1994): Experimental Validation of Navigation Workload Metrics. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 340-344.
“Advanced computer interfaces in the control room provide limited display area, and information is represented in large-scale display networks. Display navigation may generate disorienting effects, require additional resources for window management, and increase memory and data integration requirements. An experiment was conducted using an elementary Safety Parameter Display System for Pressurized Waler Reactors to validate fourteen proposed metrics of navigation workload. Participants were asked to monitor one or two parameters, and answer questions after navigating a prescribed distance in the network. Analyses of variance of a modified task load index and subscales (confidence, disorientation, effort) supported the claim that navigation of large-scale display networks can impose additional mental load. Eye-gaze and other objective metrics were not validated, indicating needs for more refined probes and data reduction algorithms.”
p. 345-349
Yoshimune, Toshiya and Ogawa, Katsuhiko (1994): Graphical Feedback System to Effectively Support User's Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 345-349.
“The book metaphor approach was created to simplify database access. The intent was to improve access speed and comfort. In 1990, we created an advanced book metaphor interface (BMI) to a set of about 300 design guidelines. The user interacts with the guidelines through a 'book like' screen and operations such as the table of contents, the index, or browsing. Experiments revealed, however, that the BMI did not offer a significant improvement over the equivalent printed version of the guidelines. The BMI was more comfortable but users did not perform the task, correcting an example of a bad data input screen, any more rapidly. The problem was that novice users did not understand the tools offered by the BMI and so failed to use them in the optimum manner. An agent was added to the BMI that monitors the user's commands and, when the user deviates from the optimum procedure, graphically suggests what the more correct procedure would be. The subjects of the usability analysis were software designers who did not have background in human factors. They were instructed to design screens through the use of the guidelines using the BMI. The agent was provided to only half of them. The usability analysis finds that the new BMI realizes higher productivity and increased user acceptance.”
p. 350-354
Purcell, Janine A. (1994): Statistical Process Control Charting Applied to the Analysis of Human Performance in Computer-Supported Environments. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 350-354.
“To develop usable Human-Machine Systems, we need Tools to evaluate and measure the length of learning periods, error rate, response time, and transfer of learning in the human operators of these systems (Whiteside, Bennett, and Holtzblatt, 1988). This research explores the use of Statistical Process Control (SPC) charts as a tool to visualize and analyze performance in a decision-making task. The data submitted to control charting was collected in an experiment that explored the effect of order of training or experience in working with alternate display formats. Results for an individual subject as well as a summary for one of the four experimental groups are discussed. Suggestions for further applications of these techniques are offered.”
p. 355-359
Wilson, Karen S. and Callaghan, Thomas R. (1994): Handheld Computer Terminals: Starting Off Right the First Time. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 355-359.
“Advances in miniaturization and wireless communications are providing the computer industry with the impetus to design handheld, portable computer terminals. Until enough research and experience evolves from handheld terminals to build a literature on design factors and to develop design guidelines and standards that would provide starting points for product design, the human factors community must rely on its user-centered design approach of designing, prototyping, and testing to ensure a safe and usable form factor for such terminals. The methodology that was used in establishing the design criteria for such a terminal included literature research, focus groups with potential users, contextual field research, expert testimony, and primary laboratory research, including a grasp analysis and screen viewability, data entry, signature capture, and holsterability testing. The user-centered design process described here provided the information required to establish the basic design criteria that would assure user safety and task efficiency. It also revealed informational needs for the human factors community involved in the development of handheld computer terminals.”
p. 36-40
Kramer, Arthur, Tham, Mingpo, Konrad, Christopher, Wickens, Christopher D., Lintern, Gavan, Marsh, Roger, Fox, Julianne and Merwin, David (1994): Instrument Scan and Pilot Expertise. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 36-40.
“A study was performed to investigate the correspondence between flight experience and instrument scan strategies. Seventeen student and twenty one instructor pilots flew two instrument flight missions with each mission being composed of eight distinct flight segments. The segments varied in the number of flight parameters that were to be modified including changes in heading, airspeed and altitude as well as double and triple combinations of changes in these parameters. All of the flight segments were flown under strict time constraints. Discriminant analyses were employed to determine the extent to which performance, control and eye scan measures could be used to distinguish among three groups of pilots; student pilots, low time instructors, and high time flight instructors. Performance measures alone were not adequate for discriminating among these groups of pilots, possibly because the maneuvers were relatively simple to fly. However, when both performance measures and eye scan measures were employed discrimination accuracies improved dramatically, ranging from 77% to 98% in the more complex maneuvers. Eye scan measures were also useful in diagnosing deficiencies in student flight strategies such as the over-reliance on a subset of flight instruments.”
p. 360-364
Han, Sung H. and Kwahk, Jiyoung (1994): Design of a Menu for Small Displays Presenting a Single Item at a Time. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 360-364.
“Electronic consumer products such as desktop laser printers, facsimiles, copiers, etc., which have a small visual display panel are ubiquitous. They are characterized by presenting only a single menu item at a time which is usually organized in a hierarchical tree structure. Since users see only a single line information on the display and use them infrequently, the optimal menu design may be different from that of an ordinary computer display. An experiment was conducted to examine variables for designing the optimal menu on a single line display. Prototypes were developed to simulate the user interfaces of several menu structures. The results showed that the search time on the small display was approximately three times longer than that on the ordinary computer display. User experience affected significantly the search performance and a menu structure with depth 2 was found to be the optimal for infrequent users. Based on the results of the experiment, human factors guidelines for designing a menu on a single line display were suggested.”
p. 365-369
Logan, Robert J., Augaitis, Sheila R. and Renk, Thomas (1994): Design of Simplified Television Remote Controls: A Case for Behavioral and Emotional Usability. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 365-369.
“Remote controls are part of everyday life. Unfortunately, the experience of using a remote is not always pleasurable. This research documents the process of developing multiple remote control concepts that are ergonomic and enjoyable to use. As part of the design process, we researched design concepts with 147 consumers in three cities. The research yielded design-specific data, but also provided insight to some general consumer trends in remote usage and preference for children and adults. This research also suggests that an expanded definition of usability may be required for certain product categories such as consumer electronics. Central to this expanded definition are the concepts of behavioral and emotional usability. Behavioral usability refers to the traditional work related definition of usability. Emotional usability refers to additional needs, such as entertainment or enjoyment, that enhance the product usage experience.”
p. 370-373
Hartevelt, M. A. and Vianen, E. P. G. van (1994): User Interfaces for Different Cultures: A Case Study. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 370-373.
“The paper presents a case study carried out to investigate cultural differences between Japanese and European users in their use of television user interfaces. The paper describes the methods used and presents the most interesting results of this case study.”
p. 374-378
Wogalter, Michael S. and Brelsford, John W. (1994): Incidental Exposure to Rotating Warnings on Alcoholic Beverage Labels. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 374-378.
“No previous research has been published specifically aimed at determining the effectiveness of rotating warnings (as is required in the government-mandated cigarette warnings). This issue has become relevant because decisions may be made with respect to rotating warnings in print and broadcast alcoholic beverage advertisements, and perhaps for labels and ads for other products as well. The present study used 80 participants in a controlled incidental-exposure laboratory experiment. The effect of the current government warning label for alcoholic beverages was compared to a 5-warning and a 10-warning rotating scheme as well as a no-warning control condition. The study was disguised as marketing research where participants were incidentally exposed to the warnings while evaluating a set of alcoholic beverage labels. The dependent measure was performance on a test of alcohol facts and hazards. Findings show that the present single government warning label is inadequate compared to multiple (rotated) warnings. The 10-warning condition produced higher test scores than either the single government warning or no-warning conditions. Overall, the 5-warning condition produced intermediate levels of knowledge. Also, four exposures produced greater specific warning content knowledge than either two or no exposures. The results suggest that rotating multiple warnings are a better means of communicating facts and hazards than a single repeated warning of limited content. Policy implications are discussed.”
p. 379-383
Braun, Curt C., Greeno, Brian and Silver, N. Clayton (1994): Differences in Behavioral Compliance as a Function of Warning Color. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 379-383.
“A body of literature asserts color's influence on display preference, cognition, behavior, and performance. Although these results have clear implications for the design of consumer product warnings, color has been disproportionately underrepresented in warnings research. The present study examined the effect of color on compliance with printed warnings. Sixty-five undergraduates interacted with a pool water test kit and a two-part adhesive. The warning on each product was factorial for color (i.e., red, green, and black) and was constant for content. Participants indicated a higher likelihood of injury associated with products printed in red than green or black. Behavioral compliance was assessed by indicating if subjects donned protective gloves as directed by the warning. The data indicated that warnings printed in red resulted in a higher proportion of compliant behavior than green and black combined.”
p. 384-388
Kalsher, Michael J., Wogalter, Michael S., Pucci, Shari and Racicot, Bernadette M. (1994): Enchancing the Perceived Readability of Pharmaceutical Container Labels and Warnings: The Use of Alternative Designs and Pictorials. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 384-388.
“The appropriate use of pharmaceuticals, as well as their hazards, are not commonly known to most people. In fact, the only information available to consumers is usually the material found on the product label. Unfortunately, for some consumers this method of communicating instructions and risks may be ineffective, and potentially dangerous. People may have difficulty with the labels because the print on the label is too small for them to read. Two alternative (tag and fold-out) designs were developed to increase the available surface area for information printed on a fictitious prescription drug label. The alternative label designs were compared to a standard control label. The presence versus the absence of pictorials visually depicting several instructions and warnings was also examined. Participants rated the labels on ease of reading the labels, likelihood of noticing the warnings, likelihood of reading the warnings, preference for each of the labels, and likelihood that they would recommend each label for use by a friend or family member. The results showed that participants (n = 84) preferred the alternative label designs, especially the tag labels, and those with illustrative pictorials. Implications of these results and recommendations for future research in this area are discussed.”
p. 389-393
Wogalter, Michael S. and Kalsher, Michael J. (1994): Product Label List Format: Effects of Item Arrangement and Completeness on Comparison Time and Accuracy. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 389-393.
“This research examined the influence of two factors on the ease of gaining information from item lists: the order and completeness of the items displayed. Food nutrition labels served as the vehicle to test the manipulated lists on comparison time and accuracy performance measures. Four booklets, each containing 12 pairs of nutrient labels, were constructed in which the listed items were: (1) either arranged in a standard order or in a random order, and (2) either had a complete set of nutrients (including nutrients not present in the product) or a partial set of nutrients (excluding nutrients with zero or near-zero amounts in the product). Thirty-two participants were instructed to assume that their physician has told them to increase their intake of three specific nutrients and decrease their intake of three other nutrients. One label of each pair contained a higher level of one nutrient that should be increased or a lower level of one nutrient that should be decreased. Participants were to determine which of the two labels would be better given the prescribed diet. Time and accuracy measures were collected. Participants made significantly faster judgments for nutrients arranged in a standard order than for nutrients arranged in a random order. For all conditions, the error rate was low. An interaction indicated that labels with a complete set of nutrients in a standard order produced fewer errors than (a) labels in a standard order with some nutrients missing or (b) labels with a complete set of nutrients in a random order. Implications of making lists compatible with expectations are described.”
p. 394-398
Shapiro, Ronald G., Beith, Barry, Goldberg, Joseph H., Hale, Joe and (, John F. (1994): I'm Graduating, Now What? A Comparison of Work in Academics, Consulting, Government, Industrial Research, and Industrial Development. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 394-398.
“The purpose of this panel is to familiarize students and faculty members with what Human Factors Professionals do in a variety of settings including academics (Joe Goldberg), consulting (Barry Beith), government (Joe Hale), industrial research (Jeff Kelley), and industrial development (Ron Shapiro). This panel compares some of the advantages and disadvantages of various career options to help student determine where they best fit, and to help them prepare for interviews. This panel focuses upon addressing basic questions to familiarize students with a variety of working environments: academics, consulting, government, industrial research, and industrial development. There are seven key questions that each of the panelists addresses: * What are typical job responsibilities? * What are the rewards? * What are the frustrations? * What skills does one need? * How do you make contact with people? * What is an interview like? * What contributes to success/failure?”
p. 399-403
Perlman, Gary (1994): Electronic Resources for Human Factors and Ergonomics Education: Lessons from Human-Computer Interaction. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 399-403.
“I describe four electronic educational resources available via computer networks and electronic mail: (1) a curriculum module on user interface development; (2) a bibliography on human-computer interaction; (3) a description of courses and curricula in human-computer interaction, and (4) a survey of educational opportunities in human-computer interaction. For each of these, I discuss: (1) why the resource was created, (2) how the information was gathered, (3) what information has been gathered, (4) how to access the information, (5) how it has been used in HCI education, and (6) how the information (or information like it) can be applied to Human Factors and Ergonomics (HF/E) education. I conclude with recommendations for the modernization of HF/E information infrastructure.”
p. 404-408
Moroney, William F. (1994): Ethical Issues Related to the Use of Humans in Human Factors and Ergonomics. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 404-408.
“As professionals, we must be aware of our ethical responsibilities when engaged in research and testing. The purpose of this paper is threefold: 1) to increase the reader's awareness of some of the issues specific to our discipline, 2) to provide some guidelines and references regarding the use of human subjects, and 3) to increase the dialog in this critical area. The material discussed focuses on Federal Regulations related to the protection of human subjects. The changing role of the human subject from "research material" to "participant partners" is also discussed.”
p. 409-411
Freivalds, Andris and Goldberg, Joseph H. (1994): Integrated Job Design in the Introductory Human Factors Course. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 409-411.
“Two different workstations are being utilized in the introductory human factors course: a workstation appropriate for typical blue-collar assembly work and a workstation appropriate for white-collar computer driven work. The white-collar workstation simulates a modern computer driven office job, with different factors influencing its productivity, such as speed, accuracy, noise, illumination, etc. The blue-collar workstation is centered around a typical carburetor assembly process found in the U.S. automotive industry. This is especially appropriate because of the large number of fairly intricate parts, the highly repetitive and rapid assembly process, and the need for power driven tools. These also happen to be the prime factors that are thought to increase the incidence of cumulative trauma disorders in U.S. industry. The students examine various tool parameters and are able to adjust the support of the tool with tool balancers, cut the detrimental impact of power tools on the hand, using the reaction torque bars and implement novel approaches, such as arm rests or arm slings as used in Sweden. Such an approach allows for the integration of traditional industrial engineering concepts with more modern human factors theory, for the 'solving' of open-ended problems and provides students with real-world applications.”
p. 41-45
Besco, Robert O., Maurino, Dan, Potter, Martin H., Strauch, Barry, Stone, Richard B. and Wiener, Earl (1994): Unrecognized Training Needs for Airline Pilots. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 41-45.
“The following issues are covered. All of these are currently judged, by at least one of the authors, to be under emphasized or even unrecognized in current airline training practices or Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) training requirements. 1.) Introducing computer naive pilots to automated aircraft and bringing pilots up to a nominal level of computer literacy; 2.) Identifying what existing knowledge, skills, and attitudes need refresher training and the frequency with which to retrain; 3.) Decision making in automated aircraft; 4.) Imbedded flight management system training; 5.) Reality and proficiency maintenance training for inexperienced extra crew members on long haul operations: 6.) Analysis and coding techniques for anomalies encountered at liftoff; 7.) Low altitude, low speed handling qualities and stall recoveries; 8.) Communication skills and standardized terminology sets for inquiry, challenge, and intervention by subordinate crew members; 9.) Use of decision trees for legality decisions in takeoff and landing; 10.) Conflict and ambiguity resolution training to identify organizational and system induced goal conflicts. 11.) Coping with real-time mission changes, software incompatibilities, and anomalies in automated aircraft. 12.) Abort decision making.”
p. 412-416
Shapiro, Susan J. (1994): Applying Human Factors to Classroom Visual Aids. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 412-416.
“Transparencies, slides, and computer based displays are common visual aids used in classroom presentations. This paper will outline the use of principles which improve the effectiveness of these visual aids General principles discussed include: Organizing material, clarifying material and enhancing encoding. Gestalt principles such as simplicity, similarity, proximity, and continuation, appropriate text size and font, effective use of color and other attention getting cues, and appropriate contrast and glare reduction are considered.”
p. 417
Mital, A., Deivanayagam, S., Malzahn, D., Wiker, S., Vanderheiden, Gregg C. and Freivalds, Andris (1994): Educating People with Disabilities. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 417.
“Accommodating individuals with disabilities in the workplace is a rapidly growing concern. Furthermore, those who are functionally impaired are in a dire need of assistance. In a classroom, the main function of a student is to learn. Learning is facilitated by an instructor's lectures, writings on the board, use of audiovisuals, etc. Generally, it is presumed that students do not have any common functional impairments (visual, auditory, etc.) and, therefore, no special effort is made to accommodate those who may have such impairments. Obviously, the learning of a legally-blind student or one who has impaired hearing, for example, will be compromised if no assistance is provided. Then there are issues such as providing reading materials for the blind (college catalogues, lecture notes, etc., in braille?). What should be done? The purpose of this panel discussion is to, in general, address and discuss the issues involved in educating people with disabilities, particularly those that are not very obvious or visible (ex., wheelchair confinement). How should university campuses resolve this problem in this age of dwindling resources? Sensitive issues, such as "Needs of the many versus the needs of the few?" and "What responsibility do we have to the few that really need such assistance?", also need to be resolved.”
p. 418
Hendrick, Hal W., O'Neill, Michael J., Robertson, Michelle M. and Brown, Ogden (1994): A Systems Approach to Preventing Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders in VDT Work. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 418.
“Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are not a new ergonomic issue. In fact, WMSDs related to manual materials handling have been recognized as a major ergonomics issue since the late 1940's. What is new is the widespread increase in WMSDs as a result of the introduction of video display terminals (VDTs). Unlike many manual materials handling situations, VDT related WMSDs do not appear readily correctable solely by conventional workstation design ergonomics. This symposium proposes a systems approach to the problem. It begins by presenting a macroergonomic approach to work system and job design, addressing specific job characteristics identified with WMSDs in the literature. The second paper deals with the critical issues to address in ergonomically designing the work environment; and providing environmental control by the user to further enhance desirable job characteristics and reduce WMSDs. The third presentation outlines the critical elements to incorporate in programs for training VDT operators on procedures for preventing WMSDs. The final paper discusses utilizing employee participation in accomplishing the tasks identified in the first three papers. The symposium concludes that only through such a systems approach can real progress be made in reducing VDT operator WMSDs.”
p. 419-423
Hendrick, Hal W. (1994): Work System and Job Design Factors in Preventing WMSDs in VDT Operators. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 419-423.
“Recent research is reviewed which indicates conventional work station design ergonomics is insufficient, by itself, to prevent WMSDs in typical VDT jobs; and that work system design and related psychosocial variables appear critical. Three common system design practices are cited as the basis for the widespread poor design of VDT work systems and jobs. Macroergonomics is proposed as a work system and job design approach that circumvents the deficiencies of these three common design practices. Specific job design factors from the literature are identified.”
p. 424-428
O'Neill, Michael J. (1994): Environmental Design and Worker Control for Preventing WMSDs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 424-428.
“Environmental control is defined as the degree to which the organization, group or individual can exert control over the physical environment as part of the process of accomplishing mission or job-related goals. This paper proposes a model which suggests that control over the physical environment may also be a means of reducing stress and work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) in office workers. Control is thought to be related to both performance and WMSD issues. The model uses systemic framework, placing the individual within the larger context of the workstations workspace, and the overall facility. The potential for control exists from the macro (facility level) to the micro (individual workstation) environmental scale. Control can be exercised through several mechanisms, including: flexibility of initial building design (reusability, ability to expand or downsize), overall layout of the work group environment (group ability to self-manage and reconfigure space) and flexibility of workstation features (such as task lighting, storage, shelving, work surface height, enclosure, VDT, HVAC).”
p. 429-433
Robertson, Michelle M. (1994): Designing VDT Operator Training Programs for Preventing Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 429-433.
“A systems approach is essential in addressing work related musculoskeletal disorders associated with VDT work. One integral component in the systems methodology is that of designing, developing and implementing an effective VDT training program. This paper specifically focuses on the importance of a VDT training program, how the training should be comprehensive, and systematically evaluated. Elements of a successful ergonomic VDT training program are described and examples of two successful VDT training programs are given.”
p. 434
Brown, Ogden (1994): Participatory Ergonomics as a Means of Preventing WMSDs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 434.
“Participatory ergonomics is a flexible means for the achievement of many diverse goals in turbulent technological environments. It is a macroergonomic approach to the implementation of technology in organizational systems which requires that end-users be highly involved in developing and implementing the technology. The notion of participation offers the promise of tremendous potential gains for the organization, the worker, and even the economic well-being of the greater society. Such pervasive and important technological innovations as the use of computers and their concomitant video display terminals can, in spite of their usefulness, lead to many occupational health and safety problems. Cumulative trauma disorders appear to be an associated dysfunction in modern industry, and effective health and safety solutions to many of these problems are highly important, both to the organization and especially to the people in it. It is proposed that the use of participation and worker involvement in the solution of such problems is a powerful and promising tool. There is no one best way to employ worker participation. It is contingent upon the nature of the problem itself, the work system, the job design presently in place, the environment in which the work is done, the training of the worker, and a myriad of other variables. From the available empirical evidence, a participation topology is postulated. The successful implementation of participatory ergonomics and other participatory arrangements requires the empowerment and enablement of people to make decisions concerning their work and to implement and evaluate them. Several participatory approaches to worker involvement are presented which address work system and job design factors, design of the work environment, and training of VDT operators. These approaches are discussed in the context of a systems approach to the prevention of WMSDs. The reduction and/or prevention of cumulative trauma disorders such as work-related musculoskeletal disorders is a matter of great concern in modern organizational life, both from the point of view of productivity concerns and also from that of the humanization of work. The solution of occupational health and safety problems will not only lead to increased organizational effectiveness, but should help provide for a far better realization of human potential.”
p. 435-437
Smith, Leighton L., Rudov, Melvin H., Dingus, Thomas A., Pauls, Jake and Staffo, Gary T. (1994): A Viewpoint on Professional Conduct for Ergonomic Experts in Forensics. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 435-437.
“This panel session explores the paradigm of professional conduct for ergonomic experts in the practice of forensics. A hypothesis of conduct is offered as a candidate guideline for professional conduct. This hypothesis is based on basic professionalism principles and has been adapted on the basis of observed experiences in the field, comments from other practicing professionals, and in the context of previous draft "codes" of professional conduct for human factors professionals and also for ergonomic forensics practitioners. The panelist contributions to this session range from a discussion of the need for and merits of a standard of professional conduct, to institutionalization of standards or codes of conduct, to the breadth and scope of professional involvement in forensics, to the mechanics of the actual practice of professional ergonomic forensics, to a comparative perspective from the related discipline of safety.”
p. 438-442
Howe, Julie E. and Wogalter, Michael S. (1994): The Understandability of Legal Documents: Are They Adequate?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 438-442.
“Citizens are frequently asked to make commitments by signing contracts and legal documents that frequently contain phraseology and jargon (sometimes called legalese) that highly-educated citizens often do not understand. In recent years, human factors professionals have become intimately concerned with the design of product-related documentation and safety communications (e.g., warnings), and through research have offered ways to improve these materials. However, there is apparently no human factors research on the design and evaluation of legal contracts and other similar documents. The purpose of the present research was to begin to assess some of the factors related to people's reading and understanding of legal documents. Study 1 examined the types of legal documents that people sign, how often they sign them, how carefully they read them, and whether they understand them. Ninety-two individuals were asked to complete a survey addressing these issues. While it was reported that the contracts were read moderately carefully and were understood moderately well, the levels were not as high as one would expect given the importance of the documents and the education level of the participants in this study (who had, on average, approximately two years of college). Also, 96% of the sample believed that legal documents could be improved and provided specific suggestions on how this might be accomplished. In Study 2, 32 participants rated the set of potential improvements to legal documents that had been suggested by Study 1's participants. The results confirmed the first study's pattern of findings. Implications for average citizens' lack of comprehension of contracts and other legal documents are discussed with a specific focus on the role research might have on their improvement.”
p. 443-446
Jackson, Patricia L. and Cohen, H. Harvey (1994): Safety Considerations in Bicycle Motocross Racing: A Case Study. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 443-446.
“This paper presents a case study and literature review on the subject of bicycle moto-cross racing. The case involves a 17 year old male who was severely injured as a result of crashing into a jump during a BMX race. The young man suffered a broken neck and is now a quadriplegic. The paper examines both medical and popular literature on BMX racing and safety. Questions posed include: why no studies have been done to determine the risk of injury in BMX racing; why there are no national databases on BMX injury statist