Publication statistics
Pub. period:1989-2011
Pub. count:20
Number of co-authors:19
Co-authors
Number of publications with 3 favourite co-authors:
Shumin Zhai:7Julius J. Grodski:3David Drascic:3 Productive colleagues
Paul Milgram's 3 most productive colleagues in number of publications:
Bill Buxton:78Shumin Zhai:67Fumio Kishino:44
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Civilization advances by extending the number of important operations which we can perform without thinking of them.
”
-- Alfred North Whitehead
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Paul MilgramPh.D
Has also published under the name of:
"P. Milgram"
Personal Homepage:
etclab.mie.utoronto.ca/people/Paul.html
Current place of employment:
University of TorontoPaul Milgram is a Professor in the Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department at the University of Toronto, where he specialises in Human Factors. He is also cross-appointed to the Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering. He teaches courses in engineering psychology and research methods in human factors. His research focus is on display, control, and navigation issues in 3D (mixed reality) environments, with application areas encompassing surgery, telerobotics, air traffic control and automobile driving.
Before joining UofT in 1986, Paul Milgram worked for 4 years as a senior human factors research engineer at the National Aerospace Laboratory, in Amsterdam. Prior to that, he was a post-doctoral researcher for 2 years at the TNO Institute for Perception, in Soesterberg, Netherlands. He has spent four research leaves abroad: at ATR in Kyoto, Japan (1993-94), at the Centre d´Etudes de la Navigation Aérienne (CENA), in Toulouse, France (1999-2000), at the Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya in Barcelona (2004), and at the Italian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Genoa (2010), followed by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT Madras) in Chennai, India (2011), where he carried out research respectively on mixed reality, air traffic control, augmented reality driving simulation and AR displays.
In the 1980’s, Paul Milgram developed the PLATO visual occlusion spectacles, and his company, Translucent Technologies, currently provides these worldwide, for research on, among other things, automobile interface design, visual perception, psycho-motor coordination, sports medicine, neurological disorders, and cognitive sciences.
Publications by Paul Milgram (bibliography)
Chen, Huei-Yen Winnie and Milgram, Paul (2011): Determining Fixed Glance Duration for Visual Occlusion Research. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 55th Annual Meeting 2011. pp. 1904-1908.
“Little empirical evidence can be found in the visual occlusion literature to justify decisions about how glance durations should be fixed for self-paced visual occlusion investigations. This paper presents a hypothesis about how glance duration may affect performance, based on a theory of how uncertainty develops as an operator's vision is occluded and how it is resolved during visual glances. Data are analysed from two on-road driving experiments involving a range of fixed glance durations. The analysis is repeated with data collected from an analogous study in a low fidelity driving simulator. Both analyses support the hypothesis that increasing glance duration may prolong achievable mean occlusion times, but only up to a certain point, after which essentially no changes are expected. The paper concludes with a practical recommendation for selecting fixed glance durations for (self-paced) visual occlusion studies.”
© All rights reserved Chen and Milgram and/or HFES
Li, Zhonghai and Milgram, Paul (2008): An empirical investigation of a dynamic brake light concept for reduction of rear-end collisions through manipulation of optical looming. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 20 (3) pp. 158-172.
“The concept of dynamically manipulating the optical looming cues of a lead vehicle's brake lights is investigated as a means of potentially reducing the frequency of rear-end collisions in automobile driving. In a low-fidelity driving simulator, 40 participants were instructed to follow a leading vehicle (LV) and appropriately respond to braking of the LV, under three visibility conditions: day, night-time with following vehicle (FV) headlights, and night-time without FV headlights. During some LV braking events, separation and size of the brake lights of the LV were expanded or contracted, by a nominally imperceptible amount, to simulate an effective virtual time shift in the headway of the LV. Results show that this manipulation was most effective for very poor visibility conditions: at night with no headlights, for which LV brake lights were most salient. When confronting a LV with expanding or contracting brake lights, subjects generally braked sooner or later respectively, in comparison with the no manipulation case. The concept shows some promise for causing drivers to brake sooner in emergencies.”
© All rights reserved Li and Milgram and/or Academic Press
Cao, Caroline G. L. and Milgram, Paul (2007): Direction and Location Are Not Sufficient for Navigating in Nonrigid Environments: An Empirical Study in Augmented Reality. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 16 (6) pp. 584-602.
Masliah, Maurice R. and Milgram, Paul (2000): Measuring the Allocation of Control in a 6 Degree-of-Freedom Docking Experiment. In: Turner, Thea, Szwillus, Gerd, Czerwinski, Mary, Peterno, Fabio and Pemberton, Steven (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2000 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 1-6, 2000, The Hague, The Netherlands. pp. 25-32.
“Coordination definitions and metrics are reviewed from the motor control, biomedical, and human factors literature. This paper presents an alternative measurement called the M-metric, the product of the simultaneity and efficiency of a trajectory, as a means of quantifying allocation of control within a docking task. A 6 degree-of-freedom (DOF) longitudinal virtual docking task experiment was conducted to address how control is allocated across six DOFs, how allocation of control changes with extended practice, and if differences in the allocation of control are input device dependent. The results show that operators, rather than controlling all 6 DOFs equally, allocate their control to the rotational and translational DOFs separately, and switch control between the two groups. With practice, allocation of control within the translational and rotational subsets increases at a faster rate than across all 6 DOFs together.”
© All rights reserved Masliah and Milgram and/or ACM Press
Zhai, Shumin and Milgram, Paul (1998): Quantifying Coordination in Multiple DOF Movement and its Application to Evaluating 6 DOF Input Devices. In: Karat, Clare-Marie, Lund, Arnold, Coutaz, Joëlle and Karat, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 98 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 18-23, 1998, Los Angeles, California. pp. 320-327.
“Study of computer input devices has primarily focused on trial completion time and target acquisition errors. To deepen our understanding of input devices, particularly those with high degrees of freedom (DOF), this paper explores device influence on the user's ability to coordinate controlled movements in a 3D interface. After reviewing various existing methods, a new measure of quantifying coordination in multiple degrees of freedom, based on movement efficiency, is proposed and applied to the evaluation of two 6 DOF devices: a free-moving position-control device and a desk-top rate-controlled hand controller. Results showed that while the users of the free moving device had shorter completion time than the users of an elastic rate controller, their movement trajectories were less coordinated. These new findings should better inform system designers on development and selection of input devices. Issues such as mental rotation and isomorphism vs. tools operation as means of computer input are also discussed.”
© All rights reserved Zhai and Milgram and/or ACM Press
Zhai, Shumin, Milgram, Paul and Buxton, Bill (1996): The Influence of Muscle Groups on Performance of Multiple Degree-of-Freedom Input. In: Tauber, Michael J., Bellotti, Victoria, Jeffries, Robin, Mackinlay, Jock D. and Nielsen, Jakob (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 96 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 14-18, 1996, Vancouver, Canada. pp. 308-315.
“The literature has long suggested that the design of computer input devices should make use of the fine, smaller muscle groups and joints in the fingers, since they are richly represented in the human motor and sensory cortex and they have higher information processing bandwidth than other body parts. This hypothesis, however, has not been conclusively verified with empirical research. The present work studied such a hypothesis in the context of designing 6 degree-of-freedom (DOF) input devices. The work attempts to address both a practical need -- designing efficient 6 DOF input devices -- and the theoretical issue of muscle group differences in input control. Two alternative 6 DOF input devices, one including and the other excluding the fingers from the 6 DOF manipulation, were designed and tested in a 3D object docking experiment. Users' task completion times were significantly shorter with the device that utilised the fingers. The results of this study strongly suggest that the shape and size of future input device designs should constitute affordances that invite finger participation in input control.”
© All rights reserved Zhai et al. and/or ACM Press
Zhai, Shumin, Buxton, Bill and Milgram, Paul (1996): The Partial-Occlusion Effect: Utilizing Semitransparency in 3D Human-Computer Interaction. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 3 (3) pp. 254-284.
“This study investigates human performance when using semitransparent tools in interactive 3D computer graphics environments. The article briefly reviews techniques for presenting depth information and examples of applying semitransparency in computer interface design. We hypothesize that when the user moves a semitransparent surface in a 3D environment, the "partial-occlusion" effect introduced through semitransparency acts as an effective cue in target localization -- an essential component in many 3D interaction tasks. This hypothesis was tested in an experiment in which subjects were asked to capture dynamic targets (virtual fish) with two versions of a 3D box cursor, one with and one without semitransparent surfaces. Results showed that the partial-occlusion effect through semitransparency significantly improved users' performance in terms of trial completion time, error rate, and error magnitude in both monoscopic and stereoscopic displays. Subjective evaluations supported the conclusions drawn from performance measures. The experimental results and their implications are discussed, with emphasis on the relative, discrete nature of the partial-occlusion effect and on interactions between different depth cues. The article concludes with proposals of a few future research issues and applications of semitransparency in human-computer interaction.”
© All rights reserved Zhai et al. and/or ACM Press
Xiao, Y., Milgram, Paul and Doyle, D. J. (1995): Medical Case Rounds: A Medium for Training and Studying Real-Life Decision Making. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 1330-1334.
“Case rounds are a prominent and important means of training in medical domains. As part of a field study of anesthesiologists' problem solving activities, we audiotaped the discussion of 10 cases spreading over 4 case rounds. This paper describes the method used in data collection and analysis, followed by the major findings of the study. The study identified three types of skills transferred in case rounds: procedural knowledge, sensitivity to precursors of potential problems, and the ability to prepare for contingencies. The study also showed the potential of case rounds in studying cognitive activities in naturalistic settings.”
© All rights reserved Xiao et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Zhai, Shumin, Buxton, Bill and Milgram, Paul (1994): The "Silk Cursor": Investigating Transparency for 3D Target Acquisition. In: Adelson, Beth, Dumais, Susan and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 94 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-28, 1994, Boston, Massachusetts. pp. 459-464.
“This study investigates dynamic 3D target acquisition. The focus is on the relative effect of specific perceptual cues. A novel technique is introduced and we report on an experiment that evaluates its effectiveness. There are two aspects to the new technique. First, in contrast to normal practice, the tracking symbol is a volume rather than a point. Second, the surface of this volume is semi-transparent, thereby affording occlusion cues during target acquisition. The experiment shows that the volume/occlusion cues were effective in both monocular and stereoscopic conditions. For some tasks where stereoscopic presentation is unavailable or infeasible, the new technique offers an effective alternative.”
© All rights reserved Zhai et al. and/or ACM Press
Zhai, Shumin and Milgram, Paul (1994): Asymmetrical Spatial Accuracy in 3D Tracking. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 245-249.
“This paper reports on asymmetrical spatial accuracy of human subjects in tracking of an object which moves randomly with 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOF) in a 3D environment. It was found that, for translational errors, RMS deviations in the depth (Z) direction were 40% higher than those in the horizontal (X) direction, for an experimental display which provided binocular disparity (stereopsis), perspective and partial occlusion cues. In general, translational tracking errors in the vertical (Y) direction were greater than those in the X direction and smaller than those in the Z direction. In early stages of practice, vertical errors were similar to those in the Z direction, but as learning progressed, errors in the X and Y dimensions converged. These finding were consistent across two types of controllers and different tracking paths in the 3D environment. It would appear that horizontal movement requires higher attentional resource priority over vertical movement in such a tracking task.”
© All rights reserved Zhai and Milgram and/or Human Factors Society
Utsumi, Akira, Milgram, Paul, Takemura, Haruo and Kishino, Fumio (1994): Investigation of Errors in Perception of Stereoscopically Presented Virtual Object Locations in Real Display Space. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 250-254.
“This paper describes studies on perception of virtual object locations. It explores the behavior of some factors related to depth perception, especially the effect of inter-pupillary distance (IPD) mismatch and the interplay of image blur and binocular disparity. IPD mismatch (which is caused by errors in estimation of the parameter) results in a certain perceptual error of virtual objects' depth. Blur of images is also a source of error in depth representation. It was found, in some cases, to be a very strong depth cue. The results of a series of experiments conducted on IPD mismatch and image blur are also presented.”
© All rights reserved Utsumi et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Drascic, David, Grodski, Julius J., Milgram, Paul, Ruffo, Ken, Wong, Peter and Zhai, Shumin (1993): ARGOS: A Display System for Augmenting Reality. In: Ashlund, Stacey, Mullet, Kevin, Henderson, Austin, Hollnagel, Erik and White, Ted (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 93 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-29, 1993, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. p. 521.
“This video describes the development of the ARGOS (Augmented Reality through Graphic Overlays on Stereovideo) system, as a tool for enhancing human-telerobot interaction, and as a more general tool with applications in a variety of areas, including image enhancement, simulation, sensor fusion, and virtual reality.”
© All rights reserved Drascic et al. and/or ACM Press
Xiao, Yan, Milgram, Paul and Doyle, D. John (1993): Two Classes of Problem Solving Situations in Managing Complex Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting 1993. pp. 529-533.
“Previous studies in complex domains such as power plants and air traffic control have described a wide range of behaviours not addressed by traditional psychological studies. This led to a field study of problem solving in anaesthesiology, using various methods of collecting behavioural data directly from the field while anaesthesiologists were doing their job. The methods used include direct observation, interviewing, and on-line verbal protocol recording with thinking aloud verbalisation. This paper describes findings from the field study and presents an analysis of how problem solving situations arise during the management of anesthesia, a task similar to process control. Two classes of problem solving situations are identified: (1) managing the patient during non-critical but stressful and long lasting incidents -- problem solving is characterised by competing goals and multiple hypotheses, and the memory load while keeping track of what is in the 'pipeline'; (2) deploying preventive and preparatory strategies -- the problem solving is characterised by feedforward control of system (patient) status in the face of anticipated inputs to the patient, preparation of preconditions of necessary and contingency procedures, and anticipation of troublesome situations to be avoided. A categorisation scheme is proposed to classify problem solving situations according to how they arise: incident-induced and strategy-induced.”
© All rights reserved Xiao et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Zhai, Shumin and Milgram, Paul (1993): Human Performance Evaluation of Manipulation Schemes in Virtual Environments. In: VR 1993 1993. pp. 155-161.
Xiao, Yan, Milgram, Paul and Doyle, D. John (1992): Incident Evolution and Task Demands: An Analysis and a Field Study of 'Going Sour' Incidents. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 1279-1283.
“When managing complex systems, cognitive demands or problem-solving situations can appear in different ways. In some situations, problems surface gradually while being recognised, identified and treated. This category of situations has been labelled as 'going sour' incidents. Within these incidents, there are a number of interesting and unique features warranting special attention. The present research project attempts to depict the task demands associated with going sour incidents. After initial analysis of complexity and some field observations, initial hypotheses were generated. Subsequent field study has provided support for the hypotheses. Major findings on going sour incidents include (1) problem-solving spans a long period of time and requires synthesis of information over this period; (2) trouble spots have to be checked repeatedly as the environment is likely to change over time; (3) interventions are required before obtaining sufficient number of signs; and (4) multiple hypotheses must be maintained and examined as the underlying problem changes appearance slowly from one form to another.”
© All rights reserved Xiao et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Liao, Jianqiao and Milgram, Paul (1991): On Validating Human Performance Simulation Models. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1260-1264.
“This paper addresses some of the difficult and elusive problems associated with validating human performance simulation models. Simulation validity can be subclassified into input validity, structure validity and output validity. Of these, output validity is the most objective and also the most important, because it determines whether or not the purpose of the modelling effort can be met. In testing for output validity analysis of variance alone is not sufficient for validating human performance simulation models, as is often taken for granted by many researchers. A more systematic approach is proposed and implications discussed. The approach is based on considering analysis of variance in terms of the power of the test and a predetermined level of acceptable differences between model and reality.”
© All rights reserved Liao and Milgram and/or Human Factors Society
Sollenberger, Randy L. and Milgram, Paul (1991): A Comparative Study of Rotational and Stereoscopic Computer Graphic Depth Cues. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1452-1456.
“The present research investigated the effectiveness of rotational and stereoscopic display techniques as applied to practical applications in computer graphics. In the described experiments, depth perception was evaluated by examining accuracy in a 3D path-tracing task, with stimulus displays resembling the structure of cerebral angiograms. In the first experiment, task performance was determined without 3D enhancements, with either technique used alone and with both techniques combined. The results indicated that performance improved using either technique, however, performance with rotational displays was superior to stereoscopic displays, and performance was best when both techniques were combined. The results of a second experiment revealed that rotational displays were no better than stereoscopic displays enhanced with multiple static viewing angles. The experimental findings are discussed in terms of the visual information available using either 3D display technique as well as with respect to the hardware requirements of both display systems. The results are also related to the weighted additive model of depth perception.”
© All rights reserved Sollenberger and Milgram and/or Human Factors Society
Milgram, Paul, Drascic, David and Grodski, Julius J. (1991): Enhancement of 3-D Video Displays by Means of Superimposed Stereo-Graphics. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1457-1461.
“This paper describes a number of aspects of a display technology under development, which involves the integration of stereoscopic computer graphics and stereoscopic video displays. The background and justification for this development are discussed, based on the need of operators of remotely controlled vehicles and/or manipulators to estimate absolute sizes and locations of objects at a remotely viewed site. The basic technology involves superimposing an interactively controllable computer-generated stereographic cursor onto a stereoscopically viewed video image. Absolute measurements can be made with this system, based on relative comparison of cursor position with target object location. Experimental results are presented in which the ability of subjects to perform such tasks was investigated. In general, results were promising; subjects were able to align virtual pointers with real targets essentially as well as they were able to manipulate real objects. A number of implications of this technology for the enhancement of three dimensional video displays are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Milgram et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Milgram, Paul, Drascic, David and Grodski, Julius J. (1990): A Virtual Stereographic Pointer for a Real Three Dimensional Video World. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 695-700.
“A brief overview is given of a new display concept, involving superimposition of computer stereographic images onto a real world stereoscopic video display. The aim of the current system is to supply the user with a computer generated "virtual probe", for exploring, making measurements, and enhancing images within a real three dimensional video world. Development of the system is discussed, together with its capabilities and a number of practical considerations for its use. Although originally developed as an enhancement for telerobotic control only, use of the technology is predicted for a wide variety of novel multimedia applications.”
© All rights reserved Milgram et al. and/or North-Holland
Sollenberger, Randy L. and Milgram, Paul (1989): Stereoscopic Computer Graphics for Neurosurgery. In: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 1989. pp. 294-301.
“An experiment is described, in which the practicality of using rotational displays and stereoscopic viewing for providing computer graphic depth cues, as a potential aid in stereotactic neurosurgery, was investigated. Subjects were required to detect connectivity of line segments within a complex three dimensional tree structure, possessing characteristics analogous to a cerebral angiogram. Results indicated apparent superiority of monoscopic viewing with interactively controlled image rotation over static stereoscopic viewing. Practical aspects of employing these technologies, both separately and in combination, are reviewed.”
© All rights reserved Sollenberger and Milgram and/or Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
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