John M. CarrollPh.D.
Has also published under the name of:
"John M Carroll", "John Carroll", "J. M. Carroll", and "J. M. Carroll"
Personal Homepage:
http://jcarroll.ist.psu.edu/Current place of employment:
The Pennsylvania State University
John M. Carroll is Edward Frymoyer Chair Professor of Information Sciences and Technology at the Pennsylvania State University. His research interests include methods and theory in human-computer interaction, particularly as applied to networking tools for collaborative learning and problem solving, and the design of interactive information systems. His books include Making Use (MIT Press, 2000), HCI in the New Millennium (Addison-Wesley, 2001), Usability Engineering (Morgan-Kaufmann, 2002, with M.B. Rosson) and HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks (Morgan-Kaufmann, 2003), Rationale-based software engineering (Springer, 2008, with J. Burge, R. McCall and I. Mistrik), and Learning in Communities (Springer, 2009). He serves on several editorial boards for journals, handbooks, and series and is Editor-in-Chief of the ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interactions. He received the Rigo Award and the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award from ACM, the Silver Core Award from IFIP, the Alfred N. Goldsmith Award from IEEE. He is a fellow of the ACM, IEEE, and the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Publications by John M. Carroll (bibliography)
Wang, Jing and Carroll, John M. (2011): Beyond fixing bugs: case studies of creative collaboration in open source software bug fixing processes. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Conference on Creativity and Cognition 2011. pp. 397-398.
“Bug fixing is an important collaborative practice of open source software development. Creative collaborative bug fixing -- collectively generating new and useful solutions to improve software quality -- is important especially when bugs are difficult to fix. We find bug fixing practices are unavoidably creative by studying Mozilla and Python. We characterize their bug fixing process as four common subprocesses, problem identification, preparation, solution generation, and solution evaluation. We discuss the key challenges of creative collaboration during each subprocess, and recommend design implications to enhance creative collaborative bug fixing processes, including support for establishment of common ground, externalization of social networks, awareness of resolving progress, and articulation of design rationale.”
© All rights reserved Wang and Carroll and/or ACM Press
Diaz, Paloma, Aedo, Ignacio, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2010): A visual tool for using design patterns as pattern languages. In: Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces 2010. pp. 67-74.
“Design patterns document successful solutions to recurrent problems in a specific software development domain. However, finding the patterns you need can be difficult, often requiring the designer to comprehend a long narrative description to understand the benefits, implications and trade-offs of each pattern and of its relationships with others. In this paper we propose a visual notation supported by a software tool that may help to identify patterns that could satisfy a designer's goals, as well as conveying the positive and negative relations among patterns, including dependencies and collisions among patterns selected for a specific problem. This work extends the concept of Softgoal Interdependency Graphs (SIG) enhancing them with a number of visual clues and interaction capabilities to help designers realize the contributions and trade-offs of their design ideas and the complexity of the solution space they are building up.”
© All rights reserved Diaz et al. and/or their publisher
Du, Honglu, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2010): Bringing back channels up front: towards an active learning environment. In: GROUP10 International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2010. pp. 333-334.
“In many college classrooms, students are passive spectators and the transmittal model of teaching is prevalent in most classes. In contrast, Vygotsky's social-constructivist view emphasizes the importance of making students become active learners. Many active learning techniques have been developed, primarily focused on making students active participants in various kinds of in class activities like discussion, writing and talking. However, there is evidence that the typical university classroom setting presents some obstacles for realizing maximum effectiveness of class wide discussion. These obstacles include the effects of production blocking, the hierarchical power structures within the classroom and the lack of sense of community. Having realized the great potential of Web 2.0 social software in meeting these challenges, the objective in the proposed research is to build an active learning environment by bring backchannel discussion up front using CMC tools. A design based research method will be used to explore effects of using this tool in classes.”
© All rights reserved Du et al. and/or their publisher
Carroll, John M. (2010): Conceptualizing a possible discipline of human-computer interaction. In Interacting with Computers, 22 (1) pp. 3-12.
“This essay is a personal reflection on John Long's keynote address at the BCS People and Computers meeting in Nottingham in the summer of 1989. I try to locate the paper's purpose and significance within the history of human-computer interaction (HCI), both prior to 1989 and subsequently, and particularly with respect to the abiding questions of what sort of enterprise HCI is, and of what sorts of knowledge it uses and produces.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Elsevier Science
Jiang, Hao, Carroll, John M., Borge, Marcela and Ganoe, Craig H. (2010): Supporting Partially Distributed, Case-Based Learning in an Advanced Undergraduate Course in Usability Engineering. In: ICALT 2010 - 10th IEEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies 5-7 July, 2010, Sousse, Tuneisa. pp. 594-596.
Du, Honglu, Jiang, Hao, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2010): Increasing Students In-Class Engagement through Public Commenting: An Exploratory Study. In: ICALT 2010 - 10th IEEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies 5-7 July, 2010, Sousse, Tuneisa. pp. 373-377.
Carroll, John M. (2009). Encyclopedia chapter titled "Human Computer Interaction (HCI)". Retrieved 3 April 2012 from http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/human_computer_interaction_hci.html
Bach, Paula M., DeLine, Robert and Carroll, John M. (2009): Designers wanted: participation and the user experience in open source software development. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 985-994.
“We present design concepts and related mockups that support the user experience for projects hosted on CodePlex, an open source project hosting website. Rationale for the design concepts is grounded in the open source literature and a thirteen-week study with the CodePlex team. We propose that fostering ways to build trust, providing opportunities for merit, supporting crossover of work activities, and supporting user experience (UX) best practices in CodePlex will help dismantle the social and technological barriers for UX and encourage UX designer participation. We address UX designer motivation as a challenge for participation and conclude that the mockups presented are a first step in furthering the user experience in open source software development.”
© All rights reserved Bach et al. and/or ACM Press
Haynes, Steven R., Carroll, John M., Kannampallil, Thomas G., Xiao, Lu and Bach, Paula M. (2009): Design research as explanation: perceptions in the field. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 1121-1130.
“We report results from interviews with HCI design researchers on their perceptions of how their research relates to the more traditional scientific goal of providing explanations. Theories of explanation are prominent in the physical and natural sciences, psychology, the social sciences, and engineering. Little work though has so-far addressed the special case of how results from reflective design of interactive systems can help provide explanations. We found conceptions of explanation in design research to be broader and more inclusive than those commonly found in the philosophy of science. We synthesized concepts from the interviews into a framework which may help researchers understand how their contributions relate to both classical and emergent conceptions of explanation.”
© All rights reserved Haynes et al. and/or ACM Press
Mentis, Helena M., Bach, Paula M., Hoffman, Blaine, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2009): Development of decision rationale in complex group decision making. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 1341-1350.
“This study explores the characteristics of rationale development in a complex group decision making task and considers design implications for better supporting rationale development in group decision making. Twelve three-person, multi-role teams performed three instances of a collaborative decision making task with physical maps. We used rhetorical structure theory to analyze the structure of their decision making discourse. We found that groups begin their reasoning processing by stating and relating information and finish their reasoning through a point-counterpoint discussion. We also found that established groups reduced their need to analyze information during the last moments of a decision. Implications for the design of group decision support systems to encourage rationale development are presented.”
© All rights reserved Mentis et al. and/or ACM Press
Convertino, Gregorio, Mentis, Helena M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Slavkovic, Aleksandra and Carroll, John M. (2009): Supporting content and process common ground in computer-supported teamwork. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 2339-2348.
“We build on our prior work with computer-supported teams performing a complex decision-making task on maps, where the distinction between content and process common ground is proposed. In this paper we describe a distributed geo-collaboration software prototype. The system design rationale was gleaned from fieldwork, literature on team cognition, and an earlier lab study introducing a reference task with face-to-face teams. We report on a controlled experiment that evaluates this design rationale. Distinct sets of measures show that the prototype supported both content and process common ground, offsetting the costs imposed by the distributed setting. We interpret the results in relation to prior work on common ground and draw implications for moving beyond current models of sharing and coordination.”
© All rights reserved Convertino et al. and/or ACM Press
Du, Honglu, Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Ganoe, Craig (2009): "I felt more of a member of this class": increasing students' sense of community with video commenting. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 4405-4410.
“Public displays are typically situated in strategic places like town centers, and in salient positions on walls within buildings. However, currently most public displays are non-interactive and are typically used for information broadcasting (TV news, advertisements etc). People passing by pay little attention to them. As a consequence, public displays are under-utilized in the everyday world. We are investigating whether use of interactive public displays might increase people's interaction with one another, with a resulting increase in sense of community. In this paper we describe the design and first deployment experiences of a platform-independent, interactive video commenting system using a large public display in two sections of a large-enrollment university class. Our preliminary evaluation suggests that students enjoyed the activity of commenting, that they participated a great deal, and that their sense of community was greater after using the system. We discuss lessons we have learned from this initial experience, and describe further work we are planning using this and similar interactive activities.”
© All rights reserved Du et al. and/or ACM Press
Zhang, Shaoke, Farooq, Umer and Carroll, John M. (2009): Enhancing information scent: identifying and recommending quality tags. In: GROUP09 - International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2009. pp. 1-10.
“We describe a scenario of tag use and an empirical study of tags as socio-cognitive artifacts providing information scent. We articulated a three-step use scenario of tags, and used it to conceptualize tag "quality" as determined by use. We designed and conducted a user study to explore what attributes of tags and taggers predict the user-rated "quality" of tags. We found that frequency best predicted tag quality, while information entropy provided further refinement. We found that people rated our identified quality tags as higher in quality than general tags. But these identified quality tags were not perceived as better than self-generated tags. We derived a regression model for tag quality and discussed implications for social computing.”
© All rights reserved Zhang et al. and/or their publisher
Du, Honglu, Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Ganoe, Craig (2009): I felt like a contributing member of the class: increasing class participation with ClassCommons. In: GROUP09 - International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2009. pp. 233-242.
“In this paper we describe the design and first deployment experiences of a platform-independent, interactive video commenting system, ClassCommons, using a large public display in two sections of a large-enrollment university class. Our preliminary evaluation suggests that students enjoyed the activity of commenting, that they participated a great deal, and that their sense of community was greater after using the system. Further analysis revealed that reading the comments and posting relevant comments are associated with increases in community members' sense of community. We discuss lessons learned and describe further work we are planning using this and similar interactive activities.”
© All rights reserved Du et al. and/or their publisher
Wu, Anna, Zhang, Xiaolong, Convertino, Gregorio and Carroll, John M. (2009): CIVIL: support geo-collaboration with information visualization. In: GROUP09 - International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2009. pp. 273-276.
“Teams of specialized experts, such as emergency management planning teams, while making decisions need to efficiently pool domain-specific knowledge, synthesize relevant information, and keep track of collaborators activities at a low interaction cost. This requires tools that allow monitoring both low-level information (e.g., individual actions and external events) and higher-order activities (e.g., how members contribute to groupwork). This paper presents design of CIVIL, a system prototype developed to support map-based decision-making. We report our empirical evaluation of the effects of visualizations on the decision process and the final product.”
© All rights reserved Wu et al. and/or their publisher
Farooq, Umer, Ganoe, Craig H., Carroll, John M. and Giles, C. Lee (2009): Designing for e-science: Requirements gathering for collaboration in CiteSeer. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67 (4) pp. 297-312.
“It is unclear if and how collaboratories have enhanced distributed scientific collaboration. Furthermore, little is known in the way of design strategies to support such collaboration. This paper presents findings from an investigation into requirements for collaboration in e-science in the context of CiteSeer, a search engine and digital library of research literature in the computer and information science disciplines. Based on a survey and follow-up interviews with CiteSeer users, we present four novel implications for designing the CiteSeer collaboratory. First, visualize query-based social networks to identify scholarly communities of interest. Second, provide online collaborative tool support for upstream stages of scientific collaboration. Third, support activity awareness for staying cognizant of online scientific activities. Fourth, use notification systems to convey scientific activity awareness. We discuss how these implications can broadly enhance e-science usability for collaboratory infrastructures based on digital libraries.”
© All rights reserved Farooq et al. and/or Academic Press
Diaz, Paloma, Rosson, Mary Beth, Aedo, Ignacio and Carroll, John M. (2009): Web Design Patterns: Investigating User Goals and Browsing Strategies. In: Pipek, Volkmar, Rosson, Mary Beth, Ruyter, Boris E. R. de and Wulf, Volker (eds.) End-User Development - 2nd International Symposium - IS-EUD 2009 March 2-4, 2009, Siegen, Germany. pp. 186-204.
Convertino, Gregorio, Mentis, Helena M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M., Slavkovic, Aleksandra and Ganoe, Craig H. (2008): Articulating common ground in cooperative work: content and process. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 1637-1646.
“We study the development of common ground in an emergency management planning task. Twelve three-person multi-role teams performed the task with a paper prototype in a controlled setting; each team completed three versions of the task. We use converging measures to document the development of common ground in the teams and present an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of the common ground development process. Our findings indicate that in complex collaborative work, process common ground increases, thus diminishing the need for acts like information querying or strategy discussions about how to organize the collaborative activities. However, content common ground is created and tested throughout the three runs; in fact dialogue acts used to clarify this content increase over time. Discussion of the implications of these findings for the theory of common ground and the design of collaborative systems follows.”
© All rights reserved Convertino et al. and/or ACM Press
Kase, Sue E., Zhang, Yang, Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2008): Sustainable informal it learning in community-based nonprofits. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 3435-3440.
“Nonprofit organizations (NPOs) play a substantial role in the economies of many countries, in the delivery of social services, and in many quasi-government functions. But NPOs face many resource challenges; for example, they depend on volunteer labor that is often under-trained and has high turnover resulting in limited knowledge acquisition and decreased sustainability. Ethnographic data from a three-year multi-organizational analysis reveals the occurrence of social and technical patterns during informal technology learning. Construction of a pattern schema grounded in organizational learning and activity theories will enable the development of lightweight interventions in establishing information technology sustainability, self-directed learning, and management processes in NPOs.”
© All rights reserved Kase et al. and/or ACM Press
Lytras, M.D., Carroll, John M., Damiani, E., Tennyson, R. D., Avison, D., Vossen, G. and Pablos, P. Ordóñez de (eds.) (2008): The Open Knowledge Society. Berlin, Springer
“This book, in conjunction with the volume LNAI 5288, constitutes the refereed proceedings of theFirst World Summit, WSKS 2008, held in Athens, Greece, in September 2008. The 95 revised full papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 286 submissions. The topics include applications for the human and the society; information systems and information technology; knowledge management and e-learning; libraries, digital culture and electronic tourism; e-business, egovernment and e-banking; politics and policies for the knowledge society; sustainable development for the knowledge society.”
© All rights reserved Lytras et al. and/or Springer
Lytras, M. D., Carroll, John M., Damiani, E. and Tennyson, R.D. (eds.) (2008): Emerging Technologies and Information Systems for the Knowledge Society. Berlin, Springer
“This book, in conjunction with the volume CCIS 19, constitutes the refereed proceedings of theFirst World Summit, WSKS 2008, held in Athens, Greece, in September 2008. The 64 revised full papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 286 submissions. The papers are organized in topical sections on social&humanistic computing for the knowledge society; knowledge, learning, education, learning technologies and e-learning for the knowledge society; information technologies for the knowledge society; culture&cultural heritage - technology for culture management - management of tourism and entertainment - tourism networks in the knowledge society; government and democracy for the knowledge society.”
© All rights reserved Lytras et al. and/or Springer
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2008): Learning in Communities: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Human Centered Information Technology. Berlin, Springer
“Most learning takes place in communities. People continually learn through their participation with others in everyday activities. Such learning is important in contemporary society because formal education cannot prepare people for a world that changes rapidly and continually. We need to live in learning communities. This collection of papers is not the definitive summary of learning in communities. It is assuredly more prolegomena than coda. Learning is increasingly recognized as a critical facet of lifetime activity, one that must become better integrated with all that people do. At the same time, community structures are increasingly recognized as a critical category of social organization – flexible and adaptable, capable of innovation and development, and yet just as strongly nurturing and supportive. The promise of learning in communities lies ahead of us. This set of essays intends to propel us all along that path.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Springer
Burge, J. E., Carroll, John M., McCall, R. and Mistrik, I. (2008): Rationale-based software engineering. Berlin, Springer
“Many decisions are required throughout the software development process. These decisions, and to some extent the decision-making process itself, can best be documented as the rationale for the system, which will reveal not only what was done during development but the reasons behind the choices made and alternatives considered and rejected. This information becomes increasingly critical as software development becomes more distributed and encompasses the corporate knowledge both used and refined during the development process. The capture of rationale helps to ensure that decisions are well thought out and justified and the use of rationale can help avoid the mistakes of the past during both the development of the current system and when software products (architecture and design, as well as code) are reused in future systems.
Burge, Carroll, McCall, and Mistrík describe in detail the capture and use of design rationale in software engineering to improve the quality of software. Their book is the first comprehensive and unified treatment of rationale usage in software engineering. It provides a consistent conceptual framework and a unified terminology for comparing, contrasting and combining the myriad approaches to rationale in software engineering. It is both an excellent introductory text for those new to the field and a uniquely valuable reference for experienced rationale researchers. The book covers the use of rationale for decision making throughout the software lifecycle, starting from the first decisions in a project and continuing through requirements definition, design, implementation, testing, maintenance, redesign and reuse.”
© All rights reserved Burge et al. and/or Springer
Carroll, John M. (2008): Community IT workshops as a strategy for community learning. In First Monday, 13 (4) .
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2008): Theorizing mobility in community networks. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 20 (12) pp. 944-962.
“Community networks emerged in North America during the late 1970s and early 1980s. During the past three decades, paradigms for networked information, services, and collaboration as resources for community development have evolved in many respects. In this paper we revisit a theoretical analysis of broadband Internet community networks [Carroll, J.M., Rosson, M.B., 2003a. A trajectory for community networks. The Information Society 19(5), 381-393], and extend that analysis to mobile/wireless community networks. This analysis is part of the planning for a specific municipal wireless project in the town of State College, Pennsylvania. But more broadly, it is intended to engage and to help focus human-computer interaction (HCI) design perspectives in the development of wireless community networks throughout North America and elsewhere.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Rosson and/or Academic Press
Xiao, Lu, Carroll, John M., Clemson, Pat and Rosson, Mary Beth (2008): Support of Case-Based Authentic Learning Activities: A Collaborative Case Commenting Tool and a Collaborative Case Builder. In: HICSS 2008 - 41st Hawaii International International Conference on Systems Science 7-10 January, 2008, Waikoloa, Big Island, HI, USA. p. 6.
Bach, Paula M., Hao, Jiang and Carroll, John M. (2008): Sharing usability information in interactive system development. In: Proceedings of the 2008 International Workshop on Cooperative and Human Aspects of Software Engineering 2008. pp. 9-12.
“In this paper we report on a preliminary study of usability information sharing in interactive system development. The study was conducted at a large technology company in the United States. The purpose of the study was to understand the usability information sharing practices of various members of multidisciplinary interactive system development teams. We found that the different job roles, specifically, usability expert, developer, and project manager share usability information in many ways.”
© All rights reserved Bach et al. and/or ACM Press
Farooq, Umer, Ganoe, Craig H., Xiao, Lu, Merkel, Cecelia B., Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2007): Supporting community-based learning: case study of a geographical community organization designing its website. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 26 (1) pp. 5-21.
“Community computing supports human-computer interaction among neighbours in geographical or place-based community organizations. Using a case study of such an organization, we investigate the process of designing their website. Our long-term participatory design approach, integrating developmental informal learning, allowed us to understand how this community organization adopts, evaluates, and sustains website technology. Based on our case study analysis, we present three design heuristics for developing community-based technology: align and afford new possibilities for participation, dynamically manage organizational knowledge and learning, and enhance social capital within community organizations and with the broader community.”
© All rights reserved Farooq et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
Xiao, Lu and Carroll, John M. (2007): Fostering an informal learning community of computer technologies at school. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 26 (1) pp. 23-36.
“Computer technologies develop at a challenging fast pace. Formal education should not only teach students basic computer skills to meet current computer needs, but also foster student development of informal learning ability for a lifelong learning process. On the other hand, students growing up in the digital world are often more skilled with computer technologies than their teachers. We describe an online course design project in which a group of students designed an online health course for their middle school, and teachers played the roles of facilitators and learners. We suggest fostering an informal learning community of computer technologies at school as a supplemental method of formal computer education to address the shift in educational context and as a place offering opportunities for students to work on real-life projects and solve real-life problems.”
© All rights reserved Xiao and Carroll and/or Taylor and Francis
Convertino, G., Farooq, U., Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Meyer, B. J. F. (2007): Supporting intergenerational groups in computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW). In Behaviour and Information Technology, 26 (4) pp. 275-285.
“The workforce is ageing as older workers re-enter the workforce or delay retirement. One consequence is that work groups are increasingly becoming intergenerational. Because group work relies on many collaborative tools (e.g. email, shared calendars), it is essential to understand the special requirements that intergenerational groups have for groupware. Can we design collaborative tools that leverage the differing abilities and contributions of older and younger workers in groups? We focus on how best to support intergenerational groups, offering an analytical framework that combines ideas from the theory of small groups and activity theory. We consider design implications for computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) and outline design principles for groupware that supports intergenerational groups. Finally, we discuss methodological issues that arise when studying intergenerational cooperative work.”
© All rights reserved Convertino et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
Farooq, Umer, Carroll, John M. and Ganoe, Craig H. (2007): Supporting creativity with awareness in distributed collaboration. In: GROUP07: International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2007. pp. 31-40.
“Based on qualitative analysis of three groups collaborating on a research task in a distributed setting, we identify four breakdowns in creativity: (1) Minority ideas were under-considered; (2) Novel ideas were easily lost; (3) There was a lack of critical evaluation of perspectives; (4) Reflexivity was weak during convergence. We propose two design strategies, illustrated with mock-ups, to support creativity with awareness: (1) Automatically summarize and recommend ideational activities from system logs; (2) Allow collaborators to enter status of work activity, making these activity updates visible on social and temporal dimensions. Our analysis also suggests an integrated framework of metrics to evaluate creativity as a long-term collaborative activity.”
© All rights reserved Farooq et al. and/or ACM Press
Convertino, Gregorio, Mentis, Helena M., Ting, Alex Y. W., Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2007): How does common ground increase?. In: GROUP07: International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2007. pp. 225-228.
“We studied the process of sharing and managing knowledge (common ground process) in three-member teams performing emergency management planning tasks on shared maps. We built a reference task and a role-based multi-view prototype for studying this process. In this paper we empirically test the claim that common ground increases through joint experience on a task over time. We model the common ground process using a realistic task, a controlled setting, and multiple measures. We present findings from the analysis of questionnaires, communication transcripts, videos, and artifacts.”
© All rights reserved Convertino et al. and/or ACM Press
Farooq, Umer, Kannampallil, Thomas G., Song, Yang, Ganoe, Craig H., Carroll, John M. and Giles, Lee (2007): Evaluating tagging behavior in social bookmarking systems: metrics and design heuristics. In: GROUP07: International Conference on Supporting Group Work 2007. pp. 351-360.
“To improve existing social bookmarking systems and to design new ones, researchers and practitioners need to understand how to evaluate tagging behavior. In this paper, we analyze over two years of data from CiteULike, a social bookmarking system for tagging academic papers. We propose six tag metrics-tag growth, tag reuse, tag non-obviousness, tag discrimination, tag frequency, and tag patterns-to understand the characteristics of a social bookmarking system. Using these metrics, we suggest possible design heuristics to implement a social bookmarking system for CiteSeer, a popular online scholarly digital library for computer science. We believe that these metrics and design heuristics can be applied to social bookmarking systems in other domains.”
© All rights reserved Farooq et al. and/or ACM Press
Massimi, Michael, Ganoe, Craig H. and Carroll, John M. (2007): Scavenger Hunt: An Empirical Method for Mobile Collaborative Problem-Solving. In IEEE Pervasive Computing, 6 (1) pp. 81-87.
Farooq, Umer, Song, Yang, Carroll, John M. and Giles, Clyde Lee (2007): Social Bookmarking for Scholarly Digital Libraries. In IEEE Internet Computing, 11 (6) pp. 29-35.
Xiao, Lu, Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2007): Support Case-Based Authentic Learning Activities: A Collaborative Case Commenting Tool and a Collaborative Case Builder. In: Jacko, Julie A. (ed.) HCI International 2007 - 12th International Conference - Part IV 2007. pp. 371-380.
Convertino, Gregorio, Zhao, Dejin, Ganoe, Craig H., Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2007): A Role-Based Multiple View Approach to Distributed Geo-Collaboration. In: Jacko, Julie A. (ed.) HCI International 2007 - 12th International Conference - Part IV 2007. pp. 561-570.
Rosson, Mary Beth, Dunlap, Daniel R., Isenhour, Philip L. and Carroll, John M. (2007): Teacher Bridge: Creating a Community of Teacher Developers. In: HICSS 2007 - 40th Hawaii International International Conference on Systems Science 3-6 January, 2007, Waikoloa, Big Island, HI, USA. p. 5.
Farooq, Umer, Ganoe, Craig H., Carroll, John M. and Giles, Clyde Lee (2007): Supporting distributed scientific collaboration: Implications for designing the CiteSeer collaboratory. In: HICSS 2007 - 40th Hawaii International International Conference on Systems Science 3-6 January, 2007, Waikoloa, Big Island, HI, USA. p. 26.
Haynes, Steven R., Schafer, Wendy A. and Carroll, John M. (2007): Leveraging and Limiting Practical Drift in Emergency Response Planning. In: HICSS 2007 - 40th Hawaii International International Conference on Systems Science 3-6 January, 2007, Waikoloa, Big Island, HI, USA. p. 200.
Merkel, Cecelia, Farooq, Umer, Xiao, Lu, Ganoe, Craig H., Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2007): Managing technology use and learning in nonprofit community organizations: methodological challenges and opportunities. In: Kandogan, Eser and Jones, Patricia M. (eds.) CHIMIT 2007 - Proceedings of the 1st ACM Symposium on Computer Human Interaction for Management of Information Technology March 30-31, 2007, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. p. 8.
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Convertino, Gregorio and Ganoe, Craig H. (2006): Awareness and teamwork in computer-supported collaborations. In Interacting with Computers, 18 (1) pp. 21-46.
“A contemporary approach to describing and theorizing about joint human endeavor is to posit 'knowledge in common' as a basis for awareness and coordination. Recent analysis has identified weaknesses in this approach even as it is typically employed in relatively simple task contexts. We suggest that in realistically complex circumstances, people share activities and not merely concepts. We describe a framework for understanding joint endeavor in terms of four facets of activity awareness: common ground, communities of practice, social capital, and human development. We illustrate the sort of analysis we favor with a scenario from emergency management, and consider implications and future directions for system design and empirical methods.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Elsevier Science
Carroll, John M. (2006): Introduction to This Special Issue on Foundations of Design in HCI. In Human-Computer Interaction, 21 (1) pp. 1-3.
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2006): Foundations of design in HCI. Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press LLC
“The artifacts we design - infrastructures, systems and applications, policies and curricula - are the most important results of our endeavors. As such, design is one of the core topics of Human-Computer Interaction. The papers presented in this book effectively capture the scope of inquiry into methodological issues of design and the current state of the art. Topics addressed include enriching design practices in HCI; ways to consolidate and reuse current best practices in design; and a synopsis of a vast amount of empirical work to form a comprehensive theory of design. Conveying an overview of current research, "Foundations of Design in HCI" serves to enlighten and simultaneously inspire and guide further contributions to the field.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or CRC Press LLC
Kavanaugh, Andrea L., Zin, Than Than, Carroll, John M., Schmitz, Joseph, Perez-Quinones, Manuel A. and Isenhour, Philip L. (2006): When opinion leaders blog: new forms of citizen interaction. In: Fortes, José A. B. and MacIntosh, Ann (eds.) DG.O 2006 - Proceedings of the 7th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research May 21-24, 2006, San Diego, California, USA. pp. 79-88.
Farooq, Umer, Carroll, John M. and Ganoe, Craig H. (2005): Supporting creativity in distributed scientific communities. In: GROUP05: International Conference on Supporting Group Work November 6-9, 2005, Sanibel Island, Florida, USA. pp. 217-226.
“We are interested in supporting creativity in distributed scientific communities through socio-technical interventions. Based on a synthetic literature analysis of creativity and collaborative groups, we present and justify three requirements for supporting creativity: support for divergent and convergent thinking, development of shared objectives, and reflexivity. We discuss our collaboratory prototype and its existing functionality to support creativity. We propose three design implications to support creativity in CSCW: integrate support for individual, dyadic, and group brainstorming, leverage cognitive conflict by preserving and reflecting on minority dissent, and support flexibility in granularity of planning.”
© All rights reserved Farooq et al. and/or ACM Press
Kavanaugh, Andrea, Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Reese, Debbie D. and Zin, Than T. (2005): Participating in civil society: the case of networked communities. In Interacting with Computers, 17 (1) pp. 9-33.
“A community computer network facilitates civic participation by providing pervasive local resources online and by connecting people to local communication and discussion channels, public and non-profit organization leaders and members, and many other civic resources. We present findings from longitudinal data (two rounds between 2001 and 2002) of a stratified random survey of 100 households in a mature community network, the Blacksburg Electronic Village (BEV). We offer exploratory and confirmatory analyses, including a 'civic effects' model, that show demographic characteristics (education, age) and psychological factors (extroversion) explain staying informed, collective efficacy, group membership, activism, and using the Internet for civic and political purposes. The model further explains differences in respondents' involvement in local issues once they go online. Informed activists with multiple group memberships become more involved in local issues once going online, whereas informed non-activists become less involved once online. Our study suggests that in order to play a constructive role in creating a more civil society, community networks should explicitly pursue strategies that encourage community activism. One way to do this, given the strong role of association membership in activism, is for ISPs to offer bundled standard Internet applications at low cost to non-profit community groups (e.g. email for leadership, online discussion for members, web space). Community networks should also promote and support the use by local groups of innovative tools for non-experts, such as easy collaborative web-based tools for information production and collaboration.”
© All rights reserved Kavanaugh et al. and/or Elsevier Science
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth and Zhou, Jingying (2005): Collective efficacy as a measure of community. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 1-10.
“As human-computer interaction increasingly focuses on mediated interactions among groups of individuals, there is a need to develop techniques for measurement and analysis of groups that have been scoped at the level of the group. Bandura's construct of perceived self-efficacy has been used to understand individual behavior as a function of domain-specific beliefs about personal capacities. The construct of collective efficacy extends self-efficacy to organizations and groups, referring to beliefs about collective capacities in specific domains. We describe the development and refinement of a collective efficacy scale, the factor analysis of the construct, and its external validation in path models of community-oriented attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (2005): The Blacksburg Electronic Village: A Study in Community Computing. In: Besselaar, Peter Van den and Koizumi, Satoshi (eds.) Digital Cities III - Third International Digital Cities Workshop September 18-19, 2005, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 43-65.
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Dunlap, Dan and Isenhour, Philip L. (2005): Frameworks for Sharing Teaching Practices. In Educational Technology & Society, 8 (3) pp. 162-175.
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2005): A case library for teaching usability engineering: Design rationale, development, and classroom experience. In ACM Journal of Educational Resources in Computing, 5 (1) pp. 1-22.
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2005): Cases as Minimalist Information. In: HICSS 2005 - 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 3-6 January, 2005, Big Island, HI, USA. .
Convertino, Gregorio, Farooq, Umer, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2005): Old is Gold: Integrating Older Workers in CSCW. In: HICSS 2005 - 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 3-6 January, 2005, Big Island, HI, USA. .
Farooq, Umer, Merkel, Cecelia, Nash, Heather, Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Xiao, Lu (2005): Participatory Design as Apprenticeship: Sustainable Watershed Management as a Community Computing Application. In: HICSS 2005 - 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 3-6 January, 2005, Big Island, HI, USA. .
Xiao, Lu, Merkel, Cecelia, Nash, Heather, Ganoe, Craig H., Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M., Shon, Eva, Lee, Roderick and Farooq, Umer (2005): Students as Teachers and Teachers as Facilitators. In: HICSS 2005 - 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 3-6 January, 2005, Big Island, HI, USA. .
Convertino, Gregorio, Neale, Dennis C., Hobby, Laurian, Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2004): A laboratory method for studying activity awareness. In: Proceedings of the Third Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction October 23-27, 2004, Tampere, Finland. pp. 313-322.
“Many failures in long-term collaboration occur because of a lack of activity awareness. Activity awareness is a broad concept that involves awareness of synchronous and asynchronous interactions over extended time periods. We describe a procedure to evaluate activity awareness and collaborative activities in a controlled setting. The activities used are modeled on real-world collaborations documented earlier in a field study. We developed an experimental method to study these activity awareness problems in the laboratory. Participants worked on a simulated long-term project in the laboratory over multiple experimental sessions with a confederate, who partially scripted activities and probes. We present evidence showing that this method represents a valid model of real collaboration, based on participants' active engagement, lively negotiation, and awareness difficulties. We found that having the ability to define, reproduce, and systematically manipulate collaborative situations allowed us to assess the effect of realistic conditions on activity awareness in remote collaboration.”
© All rights reserved Convertino et al. and/or ACM Press
Ganoe, Craig H., Convertino, Gregorio and Carroll, John M. (2004): The BRIDGE awareness workspace: tools supporting activity awareness for collaborative project work. In: Proceedings of the Third Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction October 23-27, 2004, Tampere, Finland. pp. 453-454.
“The BRIDGE awareness workspace is a synchronous collaborative tool supporting activity awareness for long-term (weeks/months) group projects. This workspace features integrated timeline and concept map views of the same document space. The concept map affords graphically organizing and planning the project, and the timeline displays and gives access to historical versions of project documents with support to show scheduled events.”
© All rights reserved Ganoe et al. and/or ACM Press
Neale, Dennis C., Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2004): Evaluating computer-supported cooperative work: models and frameworks. In: Proceedings of ACM CSCW04 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work 2004. pp. 112-121.
“Evaluating distributed CSCW applications is a difficult endeavor. Frameworks and methodologies for structuring this type of evaluation have become a central concern for CSCW researchers. In this paper we describe the problems involved in evaluating remote collaborations, and we review some of the more prominent conceptual frameworks of group interaction that have driven CSCW evaluation in the past. A multifaceted evaluation framework is presented that approaches the problem from the relationships underlying joint awareness, communication, collaboration, coordination, and work coupling. Finally, recommendations for carrying out multifaceted evaluations of remote interaction are provided.”
© All rights reserved Neale et al. and/or ACM Press
Ackerman, Mark S., Huysman, Marlene, Carroll, John M., Wellman, Barry, DeMichelis, Giorgio and Wulf, Volker (2004): Communities and technologies: an approach to foster social capital?. In: Proceedings of ACM CSCW04 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work 2004. pp. 406-408.
“Communities are social entities whose actors share common needs, interests, or practices: they constitute the basic units of social experience. With regard to communities, social capital captures the structural, relational and cognitive aspects of the relationships among their members. Social capital is defined as a set of properties of a social entity (e.g. norms, level of trust, and intensive social networking) which enables joint activities and cooperation for mutual benefit. It can be understood as the glue which holds communities together. On this panel we will discuss whether and how information technology can strengthen communities by fostering social capital.”
© All rights reserved Ackerman et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (2004): Beyond fun. In Interactions, 11 (5) pp. 38-40.
Go, Kentaro and Carroll, John M. (2004): The blind men and the elephant: views of scenario-based system design. In Interactions, 11 (6) pp. 44-53.
“Six blind men encounter an elephant. Each of them touches a different part of the elephant and expresses what the elephant is. Although they are touching the same elephant, each man's description is completely different from that of the others. We have been using this story as a metaphor for understanding different views of scenario-based system design.”
© All rights reserved Go and Carroll and/or Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Merkel, Cecelia, Xiao, Lu, Farooq, Umer, Ganoe, Craig H., Lee, Roderick, Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2004): Participatory design in community computing contexts: tales from the field. In: Clement, Andrew and Besselaar, Peter Van den (eds.) PDC 2004 - Proceedings of the Eighth Conference on Participatory Design July 27-31, 2004, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. pp. 1-10.
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2003): HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks. San Francisco, Morgan Kaufman Publishers
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2003): Design Rationale as Theory. In: Carroll, John M. (ed.). "HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks". San Francisco: Morgan Kaufman Publisherspp. 431-461
Ganoe, Craig, Somervell, Jacob P., Neale, Dennis C., Isenhour, Philip, Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth and McCrickard, D. Scott (2003): Classroom BRIDGE: using collaborative public and desktop timelines to support activity awareness. In: Proceedings of the 16th annural ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology November, 2-5, 2003, Vancouver, Canada. pp. 21-30.
“Classroom BRIDGE supports activity awareness by facilitating planning and
goal revision in collaborative, project-based middle school science. It
integrates large-screen and desktop views of project times to support
incidental creation of awareness information through routine document
transactions, integrated presentation of awareness information as part of
workspace views, and public access to subgroup activity. It demonstrates and
develops an object replication approach to integrating synchronous and
asynchronous distributed work for a platform incorporating both desktop and
large-screen devices. This paper describes an implementation of these concepts
with preliminary evaluation data, using timeline-based user interfaces.”
© All rights reserved Ganoe et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Neale, Dennis C., Isenhour, Philip, Rosson, Mary Beth and McCrickard, D. Scott (2003): Notification and awareness: synchronizing task-oriented collaborative activity. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58 (5) pp. 605-632.
“People working collaboratively must establish and maintain awareness of one
another's intentions, actions and results. Notification systems typically
support awareness of the presence, tasks and actions of collaborators, but they
do not adequately support awareness of persistent and complex activities. We
analysed awareness breakdowns in use of our Virtual School system -- stemming
from problems related to the collaborative situation, group, task and tool
support -- to motivate the concept of activity awareness. Activity awareness
builds on prior conceptions of social and action awareness, but emphasizes the
importance of activity context factors like planning and coordination. This
work suggests design strategies for notification systems to better support
collaborative activity.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2003): HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks: Toward a multidisciplinary science. San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
Cited on the following page:
» Semiotics and Human-Computer Interaction: [Not yet published]
Go, K., Takamoto, Y., Carroll, John M., Imamiya, A. and Masuda, H. (2003): Envisioning Systems Using a Photo-Essay Technique and a Scenario-Based Inquiry. In: Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2003. pp. 375-379.
Carroll, John M., Bowman, Doug A., McCrickard, Scott, North, Chris, Perez-Quinones, Manuel A. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2003): Center for Human-Computer Interaction at Virginia Tech. In: Proceedings of IFIP INTERACT03: Human-Computer Interaction 2003, Zurich, Switzerland. p. 1061.
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2003): A Trajectory for Community Networks. In The Information Society, 19 (5) .
Carroll, John M. and Reese, Debbie Denise (2003): Community Collective Efficacy: Structure and Consequences of Perceived Capacities in the Blacksburg Electronic Village. In: HICSS 2003 2003. p. 222.
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Dunlap, Dan and Isenhour, Philip L. (2003): rameworks for Sharing Knowledge Toward a Professional Language for Teaching Practices. In: HICSS 2003 2003. p. 120.
Kaptelinin, Victor, Nardi, Bonnie A., Bødker, Susanne, Carroll, John M., Hollan, James D., Hutchins, Edwin and Winograd, Terry (2003): Post-cognitivist HCI: second-wave theories. In: Cockton, Gilbert and Korhonen, Panu (eds.) Extended abstracts of the 2003 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI 2003 April 5-10, 2003, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA. pp. 692-693.
Carroll, John M. (2002): Making use is more than a matter of task analysis. In Interacting with Computers, 14 (5) pp. 619-627.
Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M., Seals, Cheryl D. and Lewis, Tracy L. (2002): Community design of community simulations. In: Proceedings of DIS02: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 2002. pp. 75-83.
“We report on a participatory design workshop in which residents of a community collaborated in learning about and designing projects for a visual simulation environment. Nine participants (five middle school teachers, four senior citizens) first conducted a participatory evaluation of a tutorial developed for the Stagecast Creator simulation tool. They then worked in pairs to brainstorm ideas for Creator simulation projects that would help raise and promote discussion of issues relevant to their community. After sharing these ideas, each pair chose 2-3 simulation ideas to refine as a specification for subsequent implementation. We discuss the participants' learning and design activities, as well as their contributions to our long term goal of supporting cross-generational collaboration and learning through community simulation projects.”
© All rights reserved Rosson et al. and/or ACM Press
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2002): Scenario-based usability engineering. In: Proceedings of DIS02: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 2002. p. 413.
“This tutorial introduces scenario-based development, an approach to usability engineering that relies on user interaction scenarios as a central representation. The course format includes a mix of overview lecture, group analysis and design activities, and general discussion.”
© All rights reserved Rosson and Carroll and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2002): Human-Computer Interaction in the New Millennium. Addison-Wesley Publishing
“The ways in which humans interact with computers will change dramatically in the coming years. In this book, the field's leading experts preview that future, focusing on critical technical challenges and opportunities that will define Human-Computer Interaction research for years and decades to come. Editor John M. Carroll, a leader of the HCI community, has assembled essays that anticipate tomorrow's state-of-the-art -- and its implications for users, professionals, and society. These essays cover every area of research, including models, theories, and frameworks; usability engineering; user interface software and tools; HCI for collaborative applications; HCI for multimedia and hypermedia; integrating real and virtual worlds; and HCI's impact on society. Discover advanced cognitive models for evaluating user interfaces; preview the future of user interface software tools; and learn how user interfaces can support innovation. Preview tomorrow's intelligent interfaces, recommender systems, and tangible user interfaces; as well as interface solutions for digital libraries and ubiquitous computing systems. Carroll provides cogent introductions to each essay, as well as a detailed preface offering an overview of the entire field.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Addison-Wesley Publishing
Vass, Marc, Carroll, John M. and Shaffer, Clifford A. (2002): Supporting creativity in problem solving environments. In: Proceedings of the 2002 Conference on Creativity and Cognition 2002. pp. 31-37.
“We seek to provide a theoretical basis for the development of problem solving environments that support creativity. This paper combines flow theory, the systems model of creativity, and a newly developed workflow of problem solving to produce a theory of the creative problem solving user, WorkFlow. It extends the definition of usability to include creativity and identifies key areas and methods for the support of creativity in problem solving.”
© All rights reserved Vass et al. and/or ACM Press
Howard, Steve, Carroll, John M., Murphy, J., Peck, J. and Vetere, Frank (2002): Provoking Innovation: Acting-out in Contextual Scenarios. In: Proceedings of the HCI02 Conference on People and Computers XVI 2002. pp. 175-192.
Carroll, John M. (2002): MacMillan Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. In: (ed.). "MacMillan Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science". London: Macmillan-Nature Publishing Group
Carroll, John M. (2002): Scenarios and Design Cognition. In: 10th Anniversary IEEE Joint International Conference on Requirements Engineering RE 2002 9-13 September, 2002, Essen, Germany. pp. 3-5.
Kim, Kibum, Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2002): An Empirical Study of Web Personalization Assistants: Supporting End-Users in Web Information Systems. In: HCC 2002 - IEEE CS International Symposium on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments 3-6 September, 2002, Arlington, VA, USA. pp. 60-62.
Lewis, Tracy, Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Seals, Cheryl D. (2002): A Community Learns Design: Towards a Pattern Language for Novice Visual Programmers. In: HCC 2002 - IEEE CS International Symposium on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments 3-6 September, 2002, Arlington, VA, USA. pp. 168-176.
Seals, Cheryl D., Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M., Lewis, Tracy and Colson, Lenese (2002): Fun Learning Stagecast Creator: An Exercise in Minimalism and Collaboration. In: HCC 2002 - IEEE CS International Symposium on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments 3-6 September, 2002, Arlington, VA, USA. pp. 177-.
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (2001): Human-Computer Interaction in the New Millennium. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2001): Usability Engineering: Scenario-Based Development of Human Computer Interaction. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (2001): Better Home Shopping or New Democracy?: Evaluating Community Network Outcomes. In: Beaudouin-Lafon, Michel and Jacob, Robert J. K. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2001 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference March 31 - April 5, 2001, Seattle, Washington, USA. pp. 372-379.
“This is a perspective paper on community networks - socio-technical infrastructure supporting villages, towns, and neighborhoods. Community networking is well-established, world wide, and addresses critical societal issues, such as the "crisis of community" and the sociality of the Internet. However, community network projects have not emphasized evaluation. Relatively little is known about the economic, social, and psychological consequences of community networks for the individuals, groups, and communities served. Evaluating community networks is a momentous mutual opportunity for the development of CHI evaluation methodologies and for bringing technical CHI expertise to bear on societal issues.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Rosson and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (2001): Community computing as human-computer interaction. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 20 (5) pp. 307-314.
“There is too little engagement between community computing and human - computer interaction. In the future there should be more. Better integrating community computing and human-computer interaction can help to make HCI richer and more comprehensive, conceptually and methodologically. It can help HCI to have more of an impact on society and on everyday collective life. Six examples are briefly discussed.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Isenhour, Philip, Ganoe, Craig, Dunlap, Dan, Fogarty, James, Schafer, Wendy and Metre, Christina Van (2001): Designing Our Town: MOOsburg. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 54 (5) pp. 725-751.
“MOOsburg is a community-oriented multi-user domain. It was created to enrich the Blacksburg Electronic Village (BEV) by providing real-time, situated interaction and a place-based model for community information. Three versions of MOOsburg have been developed: a classic text-based MOO, a MOO extended to drive a Web-browser, and a Java-based system. The most recent version of MOOsburg is fundamentally different from classic MOOs, supporting distributed system development and management and a direct manipulation approach to navigation. We are currently developing a variety of community-oriented applications, including a virtual science fair and a dispersed natural history museum.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Academic Press
Isenhour, Philip, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (2001): Supporting Interactive Collaboration on the Web with CORK. In Interacting with Computers, 13 (6) pp. 655-676.
“The World Wide Web has served as a medium for collaboration since its inception. Web-based collaboration has, however, been dominated by systems supporting asynchronous activities such as sharing documents and participating in discussion forums. Supporting interactive, synchronous collaboration on the Web has proven much more challenging. In this paper we describe three of the challenges encountered in the context of supporting network-based collaboration among middle and high school science students: integrating synchronous and asynchronous modes of interaction, minimizing consumption of bandwidth, and adapting non-collaborative software components for collaborative use. We then present the Content Object Replication Kit, a toolkit for building interactive Java-based collaborative systems for use on the Web.”
© All rights reserved Isenhour et al. and/or Elsevier Science
Carroll, John M. (2000): Making Use: Scenario-Based Design of Human-Computer Interactions. MIT Press
“Difficult to learn and awkward to use, today's information systems often change our activities in ways that we do not need or want. The problem lies in the software development process. In this book John Carroll shows how a pervasive but underused element of design practice, the scenario, can transform information systems design. Traditional textbook approaches manage the complexity of the design process via abstraction, treating design problems as if they were composites of puzzles. Scenario-based design uses concretization. A scenario is a concrete story about use. For example: "A person turned on a computer; the screen displayed a button labeled Start; the person used the mouse to select the button." Scenarios are a vocabulary for coordinating the central tasks of system development--understanding people's needs, envisioning new activities and technologies, designing effective systems and software, and drawing general lessons from systems as they are developed and used. Instead of designing software by listing requirements, functions, and code modules, the designer focuses first on the activities that need to be supported and then allows descriptions of those activities to drive everything else. In addition to a comprehensive discussion of the principles of scenario-based design, the book includes in-depth examples of its application.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or MIT Press
Chin Jr., George and Carroll, John M. (2000): Articulating Collaboration in a Learning Community. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 19 (4) pp. 233-246.
“A common computer-based collaborative learning approach is to simply introduce contemporary computermediated communication technology into the classroom to support prescribed learning activities. This approach assumes that all students collaborate in similar ways and that presentday technology is sufficient to accommodate all collaboration forms. This view is superficial and limiting. Students collaborate in different ways at different levels on different learning activities. A more detailed articulation of collaboration in learning is crucial to understanding and extending the pedagogical capabilities and usefulness of collaborative technologies. A model is presented for a more finely articulated form of analysis that enumerates types of collaborative learning activities and evaluates how these activities may be supported through different design options. The analysis is based on actual classroom scenarios and the collaboration requirements that emerge from them. The authors have successfully applied this analysis model in the design of a computer-based collaborative learning environment for science education.”
© All rights reserved Chin Jr. and and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (2000): Editorial: Introduction to this Special Issue on "Scenario-Based System Development. In Interacting with Computers, 13 (1) pp. 41-42.
Carroll, John M. (2000): Five Reasons for Scenario-Based Design. In Interacting with Computers, 13 (1) pp. 43-60.
“Scenarios of human-computer interaction help us to understand and to create computer systems and applications as artifacts of human activity as things to learn from, as tools to use in one's work, as media for interacting with other people. Scenario-based design of information technology addresses five technical challenges: scenarios evoke reflection in the content of design work, helping developers coordinate design action and reflection. Scenarios are at once concrete and flexible, helping developers manage the fluidity of design situations. Scenarios afford multiple views of an interaction, diverse kinds and amounts of detailing, helping developers manage the many consequences entailed by any given design move. Scenarios can also be abstracted and categorized, helping designers to recognize, capture and reuse generalizations and to address the challenge that technical knowledge often lags the needs of technical design. Finally, scenarios promote work-oriented communication among stakeholders, helping to make design activities more accessible to the great variety of expertise that can contribute to design, and addressing the challenge that external constraints designers and clients face often distract attention from the needs and concerns of the people who will use the technology.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Elsevier Science
Carroll, John M. (2000): Making Use: Scenarios and Scenario-Based Design. In: Proceedings of DIS00: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 2000. p. 4.
“Scenarios of human-computer interaction help us to understand and to create computer systems and applications as artifacts of human activity of human activity as things to learn from, as tools to use in ones work, as media for interacting with other people. Scenario-based design offers significant and unique leverage on some of the most characteristic and vexing challenges of design work: Scenarios evoke reflection in the content of design work, helping developers coordinate design action and reflection. Scenarios are at once concrete and flexible, helping developers manage the fluidity of design situations. Scenarios afford multiple views of an interaction, diverse kinds and amounts of detailing, helping developers manage the many consequences entailed by any given design move. Scenarios can also be abstracted and categorized, helping designers to recognize, capture, and reuse generalizations, and to address the challenge that technical knowledge often lags the needs of technical design. Finally, scenarios promote work-oriented communication among stakeholders, helping to make design activities more accessible to the great variety of expertise that can contribute to design, and addressing the challenge that external constraints, designers, and clients often distract attention from the needs and concerns of the people who will use the technology.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Chin, George, Rosson, Mary Beth and Neale, Dennis C. (2000): The Development of Cooperation: Five Years of Participatory Design in the Virtual School. In: Proceedings of DIS00: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 2000. pp. 239-251.
“During the past five years, our research group worked with a group of public school teachers to define, develop, and assess network-based support for collaborative learning in middle school physical science and high school physics. From the outset, we committed to a participatory design approach. This design collaboration has now existed far longer than is typical of participatory design endeavors, particularly in North America. The nature of our interactions, and in particular the nature of the role played by the teachers has changed significantly through the course of the project. We suggest that there may be a long-term developmental unfolding of roles and relationships in participatory design.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or ACM Press
Dunlap, Daniel R., Neale, Dennis C. and Carroll, John M. (2000): Teacher Collaboration in a Networked Community. In Educational Technology & Society, 3 (3) .
Isenhour, Philip L., Carroll, John M., Neale, Dennis C., Rosson, Mary Beth and Dunlap, Dan (2000): The Virtual School: An integrated collaborative environment for the classroom. In Educational Technology & Society, 3 (3) .
Sutcliffe, Alistair G. and Carroll, John M. (1999): Designing Claims for Reuse in Interactive Systems Design. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 50 (3) pp. 213-241.
“Claims have been proposed as a means of expressing HCI knowledge that is associated with a specific artifact and usage context. Claims describe design trade-offs and record HCI knowledge related to a specific design, or artifact, as psychological design rationale. Claims are created in the task-artifact cycle of interactive design and evaluation. Usability evaluation establishes a claim for a specific usage context, but this can restrict subsequent reuse of claims-related knowledge. To widen the scope of reuse the knowledge contained within claims and their associated artifacts has to be classified and generalized. To address this problem a schema and method for classifying claims is introduced. The schema elaborates the description of HCI knowledge in claims and enables reuse by describing the assumptions and dependencies upon which a claim rests. Methods for generalising claims and discovering new claims from existing claims and artifacts were investigated. A factoring method for evolving child claims from parent claims and their usage scenarios is described. This employs a walkthrough technique based on Norman's model of action with questions directed at the contributions a claim makes to usability at different stages in interaction. Factoring promotes evolution of child claims that either address different aspects of task support in the same domain as the parent claim, or development of more general child claims for user-interface design. The relationships between claims are represented in maps to illustrate histories of task-artifacts investigation that lead to claims evolution either via the factoring process or by empirical investigation. The schema and method for claims evolution are illustrated by case studies of claims development in tutoring systems and claims for functional requirements for specification reuse support tools. The paper concludes with a discussion of the contribution that reusable claims can make as a repository of HCI knowledge.”
© All rights reserved Sutcliffe and Carroll and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. and Mack, Robert L. (1999): Metaphor, Computing Systems, and Active Learning. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 51 (2) pp. 385-403.
“Recent discussion has resolved the question of how prior knowledge organizes new learning into the technical definition and study of "metaphor". Some theorists have adopted an "operational" approach, focusing on the manifest effects of suggesting metaphoric comparisons to learners. Some have resolved the question formally into a "structural" definition of metaphor. However, structural and operation approaches typically ignore the goal-directed learner-initiated learning process through which metaphors become relevant and effective in learning. Taking this process seriously affords an analysis of metaphor that explains why metaphors are intrinsically open-ended and how their open-endedness stimulates the construction of mental models.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Mack and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. (1999): Five Reasons for Scenario-based Design. In: HICSS 1999 1999. .
Kaindl, Hermann and Carroll, John M. (1999): Symbolic Modeling in Practice - Introduction. In Communications of the ACM, 42 (1) pp. 28-30.
Carroll, John M. (1998): On an Experimental Evaluation of Claim Analysis. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 17 (4) pp. 242-243.
Sutcliffe, Alistair G. and Carroll, John M. (1998): Generalizing Claims and Reuse of HCI Knowledge. In: Johnson, Hilary, Nigay, Laurence and Roast, C. R. (eds.) Proceedings of the Thirteenth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XIII August 1-4, 1998, Sheffield, UK. pp. 159-176.
“A framework for classifying claims and indexing them for reuse with generic models is proposed. Claims are classified by a schema that includes design issues, dependencies, usability effects, with links to scenarios and the artefact associated with the claim. Generic models describe classes of application and tasks. Claims are associated with appropriate model components. Models which match a new application are retrieved from a library by using keyword searches or browsing the model hierarchy. Claims are reused on applications sharing the same generic application. Artefacts associated with claims may also be reused although user interfaces need customizing because of domain specific features. Claims evolution and reuse are illustrated with an information retrieval case study.”
© All rights reserved Sutcliffe and Carroll and/or Springer Verlag
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (1998): Minimalism Beyond the Nurnberg Funnel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press
“Minimalism is an action- and task-oriented approach to instruction and documentation that emphasizes the importance of realistic activities and experiences for effective learning and information seeking. Since 1990, when the approach was defined in John Carroll's The Nurnberg Funnel, much work has been done to apply, refine, and broaden the minimalist approach to technical communication. This volume presents fourteen major contributions to the current theory and practice of minimalism. Contributors evaluate the development of minimalism up to now, analyze the acceptance of minimalism by the mainstream technical communications community, report on specific innovations and investigations, and discuss future challenges and directions. The book also includes an appendix containing a bibliography of published research and development work on minimalism since 1990.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or MIT Press
Jarke, Matthias, Bui, Tung X. and Carroll, John M. (1998): Scenario Management: An Interdisciplinary Approach. In Requir. Eng., 3 (3) pp. 155-173.
Carroll, John M. (1998): New Community Networks: Wired for Change by Douglas Schuler. In The Information Society, 14 (3) .
Chin Jr, George, Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (1997): Participatory Analysis: Shared Development of Requirements from Scenarios. In: Pemberton, Steven (ed.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 97 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference March 22-27, 1997, Atlanta, Georgia. pp. 162-169.
“Participatory design typically focuses on envisionment and evaluation activities. We explored a method for pushing the participatory activities further "upstream" in the design process, to the initial analysis of requirements. We used a variant of the task-artifact framework, carrying out a participatory claims analysis during a design workshop for a project addressing collaborative science education. The analysis used videotaped classroom sessions as source material. The participant-teachers were highly engaged by the analysis process and contributed significantly to the analysis results. We conclude that the method has promise as a technique for evoking self-reflection and analysis in a participatory design setting.”
© All rights reserved Chin Jr et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1997): Human-Computer Interaction: Psychology as a Science of Design. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 46 (4) pp. 501-522.
“Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the area of intersection between psychology and the social sciences, on the one hand, and computer science and technology, on the other. HCI researchers analyse and design-specific user-interface technologies (e.g. three-dimensional pointing devices, interactive video). They study and improve the processes of technology development (e.g. usability evaluation, design rationale). They develop and evaluate new applications of technology (e.g. computer conferencing, software design environments). Through the past two decades, HCI has progressively integrated its scientific concerns with the engineering goal of improving the usability of computer systems and applications, thus establishing a body of technical knowledge and methodology. HCI continues to provide a challenging test domain for applying and developing psychology and social science in the context of technology development and use.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Chin, George and Koenemann, Jurgen (1997): Requirements Development: Stages of Opportunity for Collaborative Needs Discovery. In: Proceedings of DIS97: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 1997. pp. 55-64.
“We consider the process of requirements development in participatory design through discussion of a design case study. In our project, a group of teachers and system designers initially set out to create a virtual physics laboratory. Through the course of a series of participatory design activities, the nature of our project requirements has evolved. We reflect upon this process this both from the standpoint of understanding requirements development and of managing requirement development work activity.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1997): Reconstructing Minimalism. In: ACM 15th International Conference on Systems Documentation 1997. pp. 27-34.
“Seventeen years ago, I was working in a research group of young cognitive psychologists. We were young enough to be astonished by the profound difficulties people routinely experienced in using what appeared to be carefully designed documentation and self-instruction material. These initial observations propelled us down a path of investigation and analysis that we are still pursuing. In this Introduction, I will survey the emergence of minimalism as an approach to technical communication -- from my personal perspective. Although I originally coined the term as it is now applied in technical communication, and did play a role in launching and developing the minimalist approach to technical communication, I regard the minimalist movement as more a matter of zeitgeist and refinement than of radical innovation. The scientific and philosophical foundation for minimalism was well-established before 1980, indeed, it was writ large by giants like Dewey, Piaget, and Bruner. Many other investigators, including some of the authors of this book, were developing what now might be called minimalist approaches at the same time I was getting started. In this reconstruction, I will distinguish four phases in the emergence of minimalism: the very start of our project in late 1980, the early to mid-1980s when we developed the experiments, case studies, and interpretations that comprise The Nurnberg Funnel, the late 1980s when we began to extend minimalism to supporting object-oriented programming and design, and the present in which the themes of the past continue to develop and to be further reconstructed in a variety of networked information and education projects.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1996): Becoming Social: Expanding Scenario-Based Approaches in HCI. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 15 (4) pp. 266-275.
“Scenarios of use support the integration of cognitive and organizational approaches to human computer interaction (HCI) by providing a rich representation of activity from which cognitive and organizational perspectives can be developed. In this paper, a 'cognitive' approach to scenario-based analysis and design -- one focused on causal relationships implicit in episodes of individual problem-solving and learning -- is extended by emphasizing an organizational work view of social causes and effects.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (1996): Encountering Others: Reciprocal Openings in Participatory Design and User-Centered Design. In Human-Computer Interaction, 11 (3) pp. 285-290.
Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Messner, David (1996): A Web StoryBase. In: Sasse, Martina Angela, Cunningham, R. J. and Winder, R. L. (eds.) Proceedings of the Eleventh Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XI August, 1996, London, UK. pp. 369-382.
“We describe the Web StoryBase, a system using HTML forms technology to collect and share stories and story annotations from users of the World Wide Web. We analyse usage data collected over a period of 26 weeks, from the perspective of how the system was advertised, contributed to, and browsed. We also discuss several themes extracted from the reported Web experiences: usability, learnability, diversity, communication, just-in-time information, capture and fun.”
© All rights reserved Rosson et al. and/or Springer Verlag
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (1996): The Reuse of Uses in Smalltalk Programming. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 3 (3) pp. 219-253.
“Software reuse, a long-standing and refractory issue in software technology, has been specifically emphasized as an advantage of the object-oriented programming paradigm. We report an empirical study of expert Smalltalk programmers reusing user interface classes in small graphical applications. Our primary goal was to develop a qualitative characterization of expert reuse strategies that could be used to identify requirements for teaching and supporting reuse programming. A secondary interest was to demonstrate to these experts the Reuse View Matcher -- a prototype reuse tool -- and to collect some initial observations of this tool in use during reuse programming. We observed extensive "reuse of uses" in the programmers' work: they relied heavily on code in example applications that provided an implicit specification for reuse of the target class. We called this implicit specification a "usage context." The programmers searched for relevant usage contexts early. They repeatedly evaluated the contextualized information to develop solution plans, and they borrowed and adapted it when the sample context suited their immediate reuse goals. The process of code development was highly dynamic and incremental; analysis and implementation were tightly interleaved, frequently driven by testing and debugging. These results are considered in terms of the tradeoffs that inhere in the reuse of uses and the teaching and tool support that might improve the efficiency and accuracy of this approach to reuse.”
© All rights reserved Rosson and Carroll and/or ACM Press
Moran, Thomas P. and Carroll, John M. (eds.) (1996): Design Rationale: Concepts, Techniques, and Use. Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1996): Developing the Blacksburg Electronic Village. In Communications of the ACM, 39 (12) pp. 69-74.
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (1996): Scaffolded Examples for Learning Object-Oriented Design. In Communications of the ACM, 39 (4) pp. 46-47.
Moran, Thomas P. and Carroll, John M. (1996): Design Rationale: Concepts, Techniques, and Use (Computers, Cognition, and Work Series). CRC Press
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (1995): Integrating Task and Software Development for Object-Oriented Applications. In: Katz, Irvin R., Mack, Robert L., Marks, Linn, Rosson, Mary Beth and Nielsen, Jakob (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 95 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference May 7-11, 1995, Denver, Colorado. pp. 377-384.
“We describe an approach to developing object-oriented applications that seeks to integrate the design of user tasks with the design of software implementing these tasks. Using the Scenario Browser -- an experimental environment for developing Smalltalk applications -- a designer employs a single set of task scenarios to envision and reason about user needs and concerns and to experiment with and refine object-oriented software abstractions. We argue that the shared context provided by the scenarios promotes rapid feedback between usage and software concerns, so that mutual constraints and opportunities can be recognized and addressed early and continuingly in the development process.”
© All rights reserved Rosson and Carroll and/or ACM Press
Alpert, Sherman R., Singley, Mark K. and Carroll, John M. (1995): Multiple Multimodal Mentors: Delivering Computer-Based Instruction via Specialized Anthropomorphic Advisors. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 14 (2) pp. 69-79.
“We describe the Smalltalk Gurus, components of the MoleHill intelligent tutoring system for Smalltalk programming. The Gurus offer help on plans for achieving goals in the Smalltalk environment, as well as remediation for students' incorrect and less-than-optimal plans. The Gurus' assistance is provided via the multimodal media of animation and voice-over audio. MoleHill employs multiple Gurus to deliver advice and instruction concerning disparate information domains, thus facilitating learners' cognitive organization and assimilation of new knowledge and information. We have labelled the approach instantiated by the Smalltalk Gurus the guru instructional model, one which is generally applicable to computer-based advisory systems.”
© All rights reserved Alpert et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (1995): History as Tool and Application: The Journey from HCI'91. In: Kirby, M. A. R., Dix, Alan J. and Finlay, Janet E. (eds.) Proceedings of the Tenth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers X August, 1995, Huddersfield, UK. pp. 3-14.
“Multimedia and networking technologies enable new notions of what history is and new ways to both respect and utilize historical aspects of the system development process. These possibilities are illustrated with discussions of two recent design history systems. Raison d'Etre is a video information system that presents stories and personal perspectives of design team members recorded at various times through the course of a project. The Blacksburg Electronic Village HistoryBase is a networked multimedia information system now being developed that presents documents and annotations describing a community network and the community within which it exists.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Cambridge University Press
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth, Cohill, Andrew M. and Schorger, John R. (1995): Building a History of the Blacksburg Electronic Village. In: Proceedings of DIS95: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 1995. pp. 1-6.
“We are developing a history of the Blacksburg Electronic Village community network; gathering a broad spectrum of materials from and about the development process. We are providing browsing and authoring access to these materials through a World-Wide Web-based information system. The system is at once both a tool for the technical work of developing design-history, and a highly democratic forum for evolving a community-history. We believe this project raises fundamental questions and possibilities regarding the concept of history itself.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or ACM Press
Guzdial, Mark, Kafai, Yasmin B., Carroll, John M., Fischer, Gerhard, Schank, Roger, Soloway, Elliot and Shneiderman, Ben (1995): Learner-Centered System Design: HCI Perspective for the Future. In: Proceedings of DIS95: Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, & Techniques 1995. pp. 143-147.
“User-centered system design (Norman&Draper, 1986) taught the HCI community to address users and their needs, but the community has learned that the needs of users are not a constant. Learner-centered design draws attention to the changing needs of users (both students and professionals) as they gain expertise and how these changes need to be reflected in the interface. The panelists will help in defining how interface design must be tailored to support users as learners with case studies of their experiences in designing adaptive and adaptable interfaces for learners.”
© All rights reserved Guzdial et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1995): Design History as a Tool. In: Proceedings of OZCHI95, the CHISIG Annual Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 1995. p. 2.
“We describe the notion of design history and two design history systems created to develop and study this notion. Raison d'Etre is a video information system that presents stories and personal perspectives of design team members recorded at various times through the course of a project. The Blacksburg Electronic Village History Base is a multimedia information system now being developed that presents documents and annotations describing a community network and the community within which it exists. The culture of technology is surprisingly ahistorical: Technologies and their applications in design are often thought of and talked about merely as solutions to problems. Their meanings are couched in a language of results: hardware and software tradeoffs, consequences for user learning and performance. Though it is well-known that technologies emerge through a continuous process of innovation, development, and adoption, it is rare to see this process explicitly acknowledged or documented. When they exist at all, histories in technology tend to be somewhat whiggish reconstructions that justify or critique past actions based on present understandings. This product-oriented view of technology is a useful simplification. It may not be necessary to understand the origins of display icons just in order to diagnose and address user problems in interpreting a particular icon design. However, there is a danger in taking this simplification too seriously. The full meaning of technologies and designed artifacts emerges from contingencies in the processes of innovation, development, and adoption. The most scrupulous description of an artifact per se will not incorporate the informal motivations of the designers who created it. It will probably not include an accounting of the many ideas and approaches that were tried and discarded in the design. Even the designers' most self-reflective efforts may still fail to re-capture the actual motivations that caused particular decisions. My efforts to fathom the historical nature of HCI in a practical manner started at the British HCI'91 conference. There I presented a paper in which I described a variety of typical characteristics which seemed to urge a historical view; for example, I pointed out that the meaning of the term "direct manipulation" changed through the 1980's, as the technologies we now call direct manipulation became available. In preparing for that conference, I carried out a series of individual interviews with the members of two project teams in IBM. Both projects had been running for more than ten years, and hence had a significant history to query; one involved a media workbench and the other a user interface architecture. The interviews elicited a plethora of stories: parables and legends identifying the significant issues, attitudes, and events. In the stories, there was a recognition of and allowance for individual knowledge and perspective. Team members sometimes sketched the gist of a particular story, and then indicated that a colleague could provide the full version. They seemed to accept that not all of their colleagues would share their attitudes or perspectives, sometimes even suggesting that another colleague's version be consulted because it conveyed an alternate perspective. The informality of stories seemed to provide a means for the designers to socially construct the coherence of their projects. As I delivered the talk, standing at the podium in Edinburgh, I suddenly saw an implication of what I was saying: I decided to build a video information system of designers telling their stories, a documentation system containing informal material about a development process as it occurred through time. I decided to study the role of history in system development by building and studying history systems.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Ergonomics Society of Australia
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (1995): Scenario-Based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. John Wiley and Sons
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1995): Managing Evaluation Goals for Training. In Communications of the ACM, 38 (7) pp. 40-48.
Koenemann-Belliveau, Jurgen, Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth and Singley, Mark K. (1994): Comparative Usability Evaluation: Critical Incidents and Critical Threads. In: Adelson, Beth, Dumais, Susan and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 94 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-28, 1994, Boston, Massachusetts. pp. 245-251.
“Empirical usability evaluations (particularly formative evaluations [13]) hinge on observing and interpreting critical incidents [8] of use. We proposed [3,5] augmenting critical incident methods by analysis of what we called critical threads: sets of causally related user episodes that, taken together, define major usability themes. This paper extends this work to the comparative usability analysis of a related artifact. We discuss how our earlier claims analysis was used to orient and simplify our current evaluation efforts.”
© All rights reserved Koenemann-Belliveau et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Mack, Robert L., Robertson, Scott P. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1994): Binding Objects to Scenarios of Use. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 41 (1) pp. 243-276.
“Scenarios are a natural and effective medium for thinking in general and for design in particular. Our work seeks to develop a potential unification between recent scenario-oriented work in object-oriented analysis/design methods and scenario-oriented work in the analysis/design of human-computer interaction. We illustrate this perspective by showing: (1) how scenario questioning can be used to systematically interrogate the knowledge and practices of potential users, and thereby to create object-oriented analysis models that are psychologically valid; (2) how depicting an individual object's point-of-view can serve as a pedagogical scaffold to help students of object-oriented analysis see how to identify and assign object responsibilities in creating a problem domain model; and (3) how usage scenarios can be employed to motivate and coordinate the design implementation, refactoring and reuse of object-oriented software.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1994): Putting metaphors to work. In: Graphics Interface 94 May 18-20, 1994, Banff, Alberta, Canada. pp. 112-119.
Carroll, John M., Veer, Gerrit van der, Hammond, Judith H., Schneider-Hufschmidt, Matthias, Risak, Veith A. and Cockton, Gilbert (1994): World-wide CHI: Let One Hundred Flowers Bloom in the Global Zoo. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 26 (4) pp. 4-9.
Carroll, John M. (1994): Making Use a Design Representation. In Communications of the ACM, 37 (12) pp. 28-35.
Carroll, John M., Alpert, Sherman R., Karat, John, Deusen, Mary S. Van and Rosson, Mary Beth (1994): Raison d'Etre: capturing design history and rationale in mutimedia narratives. In: Plaisant, Catherine (ed.) Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 1994, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, April 24-28, 1994, Conference Companion 1994. p. 213.
Carroll, John M., Rosson, Mary Beth and Singley, Mark K. (1993): The Collaboration Thread: A Formative Evaluation of Object-Oriented Education. In: Cook, Curtis, Scholtz, Jean and Spohrer, James C. (eds.) Empirical Studies of Programmers - Fifth Workshop December 3-15, 1993, 1993, Palo Alto, California. pp. 26-41.
“We are exploring a type of critical incident analysis that groups together sets of causally related user episodes; we refer to these as "critical threads." The episodes of a critical thread are sometimes less-than-critical when viewed in isolation, which can be a problem in formative evaluation, since when taken together, these same episodes can expose major underlying usability issues. We use psychological design rationale to construct a unifying description of the set of user episodes comprising a critical thread (i.e., as a sort of abstract and distributed user scenario). Such a description guides the recognition of pieces of a critical thread in data and the articulation of underlying usability themes embodied across the various constituent episodes.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Ablex Publishing
Carroll, John M., Koenemann-Belliveau, Jurgen, Rosson, Mary Beth and Singley, Mark K. (1993): Critical Incidents and Critical Themes in Empirical Usability Evaluation. In: Alty, James L., Diaper, Dan and Guest, D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Eighth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers VIII August 7-10, 1993, Loughborough University, UK. pp. 279-292.
“Empirical usability evaluations (particularly 'formative' evaluations) hinge on observing and interpreting critical incidents of use: the causes of such critical incidents can often be found in the immediate contexts of their occurrence and can guide specific design changes. However, it can also happen that the causes of a critical incident are temporally remote from its context of occurrence or distributed throughout the user's prior experiences. We propose augmenting critical incident methods by analysis of what we call 'critical threads': sets of causally related user episodes that, taken together, define major usability themes.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Cambridge University Press
Carroll, John M. (1993): Creating a Design Science of Human-Computer Interaction. In Interacting with Computers, 5 (1) pp. 3-12.
“An increasingly important task of computer science is to support the analysis and design of computers as things to learn from, as tools to use in one's work, as media for interacting with other people. Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the speciality area that addresses this task. Through the past two decades, HCI has pursued a broad and ambitious scientific agenda, progressively integrating its research concerns with the contexts of system development and use. This has created an unprecedented opportunity to manage the emergence of new technology so as to support socially responsive objectives.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Elsevier Science
Carroll, John M., Singley, Mark K. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1992): Integrating Theory Development with Design Evaluation. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 11 (5) pp. 247-255.
“In this paper, we recruit the construct of psychological design rationale as a framework for integrating theory development with design evaluation in HCI. We propose that, in some cases, part of an artefact's psychological design rationale can be regarded as inherited from second-order artefacts (prescriptive design models, architectures and genres, tools and environments, interface styles). We show how evaluation data pertaining to an artefact can be used to test and develop the second-order artefact from which it inherits.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
Bellamy, Rachel K. E. and Carroll, John M. (1992): Re-Structuring the Programmer's Task. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 37 (4) pp. 503-527.
“It is increasingly common for programming environments to provide a library of re-usable code components. Programmers build their programs by piecing together these components and, when necessary, specializing them or creating new components. Thus, finding and composing components become central programming tasks. In this paper, we analyse the Smalltalk/V environment with respect to these programming tasks and develop a redesign in which code components can be borrowed and manipulated under the task-oriented rubric of projects.”
© All rights reserved Bellamy and Carroll and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1992): Getting Around the Task-Artifact Cycle: How to Make Claims and Design by Scenario. In ACM Transactions on Information Systems, 10 (2) pp. 181-212.
“We are developing an "action science" approach to human-computer interaction (HCI), seeking to better integrate activities directed at understanding with those directed at design. The approach leverages development practices of current HCI with methods and concepts to support a shift toward using broad and explicit design rationale to reify where we are in a design process, why we are there, and to guide reasoning about where we might go from there. We represent a designed artifact as the set of user scenarios supported by that artifact and more finely by causal schemas detailing the underlying psychological rationale. These schemas, called claims, unpack wherefores and whys of the scenarios. In this paper, we stand back from several empirical projects to clarify our commitments and practices.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Rosson and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Singley, Mark K. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1992): Integrating Theory Development with Design Evaluation. In: East-West International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Proceedings of the EWHCI92 1992. pp. 446-452.
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (1991): Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer Interface. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press
Carroll, John M., Kellogg, Wendy A. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1991): The Task-Artifact Cycle. In: Carroll, John M. (ed.). "Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer Interface". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Carroll, John M. (1991): Introduction: The Kittle House manifesto. In: Carroll, John M. (ed.). "Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer Interface". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Presspp. 1-16
Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Sweeney, Christine (1991): A View Matcher for Reusing Smalltalk Classes. In: Robertson, Scott P., Olson, Gary M. and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 91 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 28 - June 5, 1991, New Orleans, Louisiana. pp. 277-283.
“A prime attraction of object-oriented programming languages is the possibility of reusing code. We examine the support provided by Smalltalk to programmers attempting to incorporate an existing class into a new design, focussing on issues of usage examples, object-specific analysis, how-to-use-it information, and object connections. We then describe a View Matcher for reuse, a tool that documents reusable classes through a set of coordinated views onto concrete usage examples; in three scenarios, we illustrate how the tool addresses the issues raised in our analysis of reuse in Smalltalk.”
© All rights reserved Rosson et al. and/or ACM Press
Sutcliffe, Alistair G., Carroll, John M., Young, Richard M. and Long, John (1991): HCI Theory on Trial. In: Robertson, Scott P., Olson, Gary M. and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 91 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 28 - June 5, 1991, New Orleans, Louisiana. pp. 399-401.
“This panel will examine the potential of artifact theory to deliver usable designs in contention with two rival theories, the HCI conception of engineering, and cognitive modelling. The aim will be to explore how well artifact theory and alternative approaches can deliver good design and the contribution the theory makes to the process and product of design.”
© All rights reserved Sutcliffe et al. and/or ACM Press
Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Sweeney, Christine (1991): Demonstrating a View Matcher for Reusing Smalltalk Classes. In: Robertson, Scott P., Olson, Gary M. and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 91 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 28 - June 5, 1991, New Orleans, Louisiana. pp. 431-432.
Singley, Mark K., Carroll, John M. and Alpert, Sherman R. (1991): Psychological Design Rationale for an Intelligent Tutoring System for Smalltalk. In: Koenemann-Belliveau, Jurgen, Moher, Thomas G. and Robertson, Scott P. (eds.) Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Workshop on Empirical Studies of Programmers 1991, Norwood, New Jersey, USA. pp. 196-209.
“Although a descriptive psychology of programming is maturing, it is unclear whether it is cumulating in such a way as to have any obvious impact on the design of programming languages or environments. In the present work, we consider an alternative framework for bringing to bear empirical observations of user behavior on the design of programming artifacts. Specifically, we construct a psychological design rationale for an intelligent tutoring system for Smalltalk based on observations of users working with Smalltalk. We observed six persons of varying levels of expertise undertake an introductory yet representative project in Smalltalk: to create a window that transforms and displays all of its keyboard input in upper case. Our intention is to explicate and strengthen the link between empirical observations and design decisions.”
© All rights reserved Singley et al. and/or Ablex Publishing
Carroll, John M. and Moran, Thomas P. (1991): Introduction to this Special Issue on Design Rationale. In Human-Computer Interaction, 6 (3) pp. 197-200.
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1991): Deliberated Evolution: Stalking the View Matcher in Design Space. In Human-Computer Interaction, 6 (3) pp. 281-318.
“Technology development in human-computer interaction (HCI) can be interpreted as a coevolution of tasks and artifacts. The tasks people actually engage in (successfully of problematically) and those they wish to engage in (or perhaps merely to imagine) define requirements for future technology and, specifically, for new HCI artifacts. These artifacts, in turn, open up new possibilities for human tasks, new ways to do familiar things, and entirely new kinds of things to do. In this article, we describe psychological design rationale as an approach to augmenting HCI technology development and to clarifying the sense in which HCI artifacts embody psychological theory. A psychological design rationale is an enumeration of the psychological claims embodied by an artifact for the situations in which it is used. As an example, we present our design work with the View Matcher, a Smalltalk programming environment for coordinating multiple views of an example application. In particular, we show how psychological design rationale was used to develop a view matcher for code reuse from prior design rationales for related programming tasks and environments.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Rosson and/or Taylor and Francis
Zak, Bruce, Carroll, John M. and Swigger, Kathleen M. (1991): An Experiment in Modeling Human Visual Learning. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 34 (4) pp. 513-526.
“This paper describes an experiment that was conducted for the purpose of modeling human learning of visual patterns. A simple visual pattern game, called Merlin, was used as the vehicle for this experiment as it exhibits a feature known as non-serializable subgoals and, as such, is somewhat difficult to master. While subjects played a computerized version of the game, their moves and times between moves were recorded by a computer. Each subject was also asked to keep a written record of the strategies they discovered while playing the game. Finally, after the subjects declared that they had mastered the game, they were interviewed and asked to describe their overall strategies. Programs were then written in Prolog that attempted to model the processes that human subjects used to master the game. The purpose of constructing these "machine learning" programs was to gain insight into the ways that learning (especially visual pattern learning) is actually accomplished by human beings. Four parallels between human learning and machine learning were examined: (1) the use of macro strategies; (2) the simplification of the search space by using rotations and reflections; (3) the recognition of symmetrical board positions; and (4) improvement with practice.”
© All rights reserved Zak et al. and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. (1991): History and Hysteresis in Theories and Frameworks for HCI. In: Diaper, Dan and Hammond, Nick (eds.) Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers VI August 20-23, 1991, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK. pp. 47-55.
“The contextualist critique of HCI theories and frameworks both complicates the analyst's job and enriches the analytical result by permitting, indeed requiring reference to situational details of user interaction. It is suggested that this critique be broadened to envision HCI as fundamentally historical, relativizing situational details to points in time, and taking remote direct causation (hysteresis) as the usual state of affairs. This further enrichment may have the same double-edged effect on analysis in the field.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Cambridge University Press
Carroll, John M. (1990): The Nurnberg Funnel: Designing Minimalist Instruction for Practical Computer Skill. MIT Press
Rosson, Mary Beth, Carroll, John M. and Bellamy, Rachel K. E. (1990): Smalltalk Scaffolding: A Case Study of Minimalist Instruction. In: Carrasco, Jane and Whiteside, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 90 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference 1990, Seattle, Washington,USA. pp. 423-429.
“A curriculum was developed to introduce users to the Smalltalk object-oriented programming language. Applying the Minimalist model of instruction, we developed a set of example-based learning scenarios aimed at supporting real work, getting started fast, reasoning and improvising, coordinating system and text, supporting error recognition and recovery, and exploiting prior knowledge. We describe our initial curriculum design as well as the significant changes that have taken place as we have observed it in use.”
© All rights reserved Rosson et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Singer, Janice, Bellamy, Rachel K. E. and Alpert, Sherman R. (1990): A View Matcher for Learning Smalltalk. In: Carrasco, Jane and Whiteside, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 90 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference 1990, Seattle, Washington,USA. pp. 431-437.
“The View Matcher is a structured browser for Smalltalk/V. It presents a set of integrated and dynamic views of a running application, intended to coordinate and rationalize a programmer's early understanding of Smalltalk and its environment. We describe the system through two user scenarios involving exploration of the model-view-controller paradigm.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1990): Infinite Detail and Emulation in an Ontologically Minimized HCI. In: Carrasco, Jane and Whiteside, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 90 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference 1990, Seattle, Washington,USA. pp. 321-327.
“By default, we attempt to define practical areas of technological endeavor as "applications." For example, the applied psychology of human-computer interaction has characteristically been defined in terms of the methods and concepts basic psychology can provide. This has not worked well. An alternative approach is to begin from a characterization of current practice, to take seriously the requirements of the domain of endeavor, and to define areas of "science" and "application" as possible and appropriate in that context.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or ACM Press
Bellamy, Rachel K. E. and Carroll, John M. (1990): Redesign by Design. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 199-205.
“The evolution of HCI technology has been characterized by the task-artifact cycle, raising the question how do artifacts change tasks? In answer we have started to analyze personal redesigns of Smalltalk/V tools, to understand how and why the programming environment and the tasks it supports evolve. We interviewed designers working with Smalltalk/V, and asked them to describe their personal redesigns of the system tools (browsers, inspectors etc.), motivations for redesign, and typical scenarios of use before and after redesign. We found that designers do consider usability issues, but sometimes not all the usability strengths and weaknesses of existing interface techniques and of their redesigns. We show how psychological claims analysis can support and guide such redesign work.”
© All rights reserved Bellamy and Carroll and/or North-Holland
Singley, Mark K. and Carroll, John M. (1990): Minimalist Planning Tools in an Instructional System for Smalltalk Programming. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 937-944.
“We describe the design of an instructional system for Smalltalk that attempts to reify students' goals and plans through the application of minimalist planning dialogues. Minimalist planning dialogues are sparse in that the planning knowledge is not stated explicitly but rather is imbedded into the structure of a planning "tool." They are situated in that the planning tools are fully integrated into the physical problem space and in essence provide an elaborated view of that space. We contrast our system with other current attempts at reifying students' goals and plans and sketch out problems and prospects for future work.”
© All rights reserved Singley and Carroll and/or North-Holland
Anderson, Richard I., Carroll, John M., McGrew, John F., Grudin, Jonathan and Scapin, Dominique L. (1990): Task Analysis: The Oft Missing Step in the Development of Computer-Human Interfaces; Its Desirable Nature, Value, and Role. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 1051-1054.
Monk, Andrew, Carroll, John M., Harrison, Michael, Long, John and Young, Richard (1990): New Approaches to Theory in HCI: How Should We Judge Their Acceptability?. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 1055-1058.
Rosson, Mary Beth and Carroll, John M. (1990): Climbing the Smalltalk Mountain. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 21 (3) pp. 76-79.
Carroll, John M. and Kellogg, Wendy A. (1989): Artifact as Theory-Nexus: Hermeneutics Meet Theory-Based Design. In: Bice, Ken and Lewis, Clayton H. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 89 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 30 - June 4, 1989, Austin, Texas. pp. 7-14.
“We suggest that HCI designs characteristically embody multiple, distinct psychological claims, that virtually every aspect of a system's usability is overdetermined by independent psychological rationales inherent in its design. These myriad claims cohere in being implemented together in a running system. Thus, HCI artifacts themselves are perhaps the most effective medium for theory development in HCI. We advance a framework for articulating the psychological claims embodied by artifacts. This proposal reconciles the contrasting perspectives of theory-based design and hermeneutics, and clarifies the apparent paradox of HCI application leading HCI theory.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Kellogg and/or ACM Press
Black, John B., Bechtold, J. Scott, Mitrani, Marco and Carroll, John M. (1989): On-Line Tutorials: What Kind of Inference Leads to the Most Effective Learning?. In: Bice, Ken and Lewis, Clayton H. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 89 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 30 - June 4, 1989, Austin, Texas. pp. 81-83.
“This paper presents an empirical study comparing the effectiveness of four different versions of an on-line database tutorial, each of which calls upon the student to perform a different kind of inference. The general-to-specific version presents instructions in the form of general rules, from which the students expected to infer how to apply the rule in the given context. The explanation-to-specific version supplies information about the functional organization of the database program in addition to general rules. The specific-to-specific condition gives an example of the use of a command; the student must infer how to apply the command in a slightly different context. The control version gives explicit instructions. The best performance on a post-test consisting of realistic tasks was obtained from the general-to-specific and explanation-to-specific conditions.”
© All rights reserved Black et al. and/or ACM Press
Wolf, Catherine G., Carroll, John M., Landauer, Thomas K., John, Bonnie E. and Whiteside, John (1989): The Role of Laboratory Experiments in HCI: Help, Hindrance, or Ho-Hum?. In: Bice, Ken and Lewis, Clayton H. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 89 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 30 - June 4, 1989, Austin, Texas. pp. 265-268.
Carroll, John M. and Campbell, Robert L. (1989): Artifacts as Psychological Theories: The Case of Human-Computer Interaction. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 8 (4) pp. 247-256.
“We cast the psychology of human-computer interaction (HCI) in terms of task analysis and the invention of artifacts. We consider the implications of this for attempts to define HCI in terms of a priori conceptions of psychology. We suggest that artifacts can be considered theory-like in HCI, and observe that they do play a theory-like role in the field as practiced. Our proposal resolves the current methodological perplexity about the legitimacy and composition of the field. We conclude that HCI is a distinct sort of science: a design science.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Campbell and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (1989): Feeding the Interface Eaters. In: Sutcliffe, Alistair G. and Macauley, Linda (eds.) Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers V August 5-8, 1989, University of Nottingham, UK. pp. 35-48.
“An abiding question in the psychology of human-computer interaction (as elsewhere in science) is how knowledge can be applied. One view is that pure knowledge always finds application; another is that knowledge only exists through application. Both are problematic: the former is frequently false and generally over-optimistic; the latter is idiosyncratic and subjective. In order to efficiently contribute to the design of computer systems and applications, the psychology of HCI must energetically press pure knowledge toward invention and must cultivate disciplined interpretation of applications already in hand.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Cambridge University Press
Grudin, Jonathan, Carroll, John M., Ehrlich, Sheryl M., Grisham, Mike, Hersh, Harry and Seybold, Patricia (1988): Integrating Human Factors and Software Development. In: Soloway, Elliot, Frye, Douglas and Sheppard, Sylvia B. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 88 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference June 15-19, 1988, Washington, DC, USA. pp. 157-159.
“Approaches to integrating human factors or user interface knowledge and expertise with software development are still exploratory and evolving. The human-computer interface provides a broader range of user interface challenges than earlier technology, but human factors is only now starting to be widely recognized as a distinct discipline requiring integration with system development. Devoting human and computer resources to user interface enhancement has been considered a luxury, and in many places still is, but the falling cost of computational power and the growing user resistance to poor interfaces, as well as a rising need for product differentiation in the marketplace, insure that human factors will become a necessity where it has not already. The need to develop organizational approaches to support the integration of human factors or user interface expertise with product development is thus a relatively new concern. The integration problems that have been identified include some that are shared with more established support activities such as technical writing, and others that are particular to human factors or result from the relative unfamiliarity of the discipline.”
© All rights reserved Grudin et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. and Kay, Dana S. (1988): Prompting, Feedback and Error Correction in the Design of a Scenario Machine. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 28 (1) pp. 11-27.
“A scenario machine limits the user to a single action path through system functions and procedures. Four scenario machines were designed to embody different approaches to prompting, feedback, and automatic error correction for a "learning-by-doing" training simulator for a commercial, menu-based word processor. Compared with users trained directly on the commercial system, scenario machine users demonstrated an overall advantage in the "getting started" stage of learning. Initial training on a "prompting + automatic correction" system was particularly efficient, encouraging a DWIM (or "do what I mean") approach to training system design. Curiously, training on a "prompting + feedback" system led to relatively impaired performance on a set of transfer of learning tasks. It was suggested that too much training information support may obscure the task coherence of the action scenario itself relative to a design that provides less explicit direction.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Kay and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. and Thomas, John C. (1988): Fun. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 19 (3) pp. 21-24.
Carroll, John M. and Aaronson, Amy P. (1988): Learning by Doing with Simulated Intelligent Help. In Communications of the ACM, 31 (9) pp. 1064-1079.
Shneiderman, Ben and Carroll, John M. (1988): Ecological Studies of Professional Programmers (Introduction to the Special Section). In Communications of the ACM, 31 (11) pp. 1256-1258.
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (1987): Interfacing Thought. Cambridge, MIT Press
Carroll, John M. and Tanner, Peter P. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 87 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Canada.
Aaronson, Amy and Carroll, John M. (1987): The Answer is in the Question: A Protocol Study of Intelligent Help. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 6 (4) pp. 393-402.
“Thirty advisory interactions between computer system 'help desk' consultants and their clients were transcribed and analysed as part of a project to determine the behavioural requirements for intelligent on-line help facilities. An interesting property of these interactions is that the advice was frequently modified in response to verification requests: questions (often syntactically implicit) which contain presuppositional statements that are partial answers to the asserted query. Designs for intelligent help facilities might exploit this finding by supporting the verification strategy and attempting to extract and use the presupposed statements in these questions to generate advice.”
© All rights reserved Aaronson and Carroll and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M., Smith-Kerker, Penny L., Ford, James R. and Mazur-Rimetz, Sandra A. (1987): The Minimal Manual. In Human-Computer Interaction, 3 (2) pp. 123-153.
“The Minimal Manual was designed to address difficulties people have with state-of-the-art self-instruction manuals in learning to use powerful computing devices. It is briefer; it helps learners to coordinate their attention between the system and the manual; it specifically trains error recognition and recovery; it better supports reference use after training. In two experiments, the Minimal Manual was shown to afford more efficient learning progress than an otherwise comparable, commercially-developed self-instruction manual, and was superior in the specific areas predicted by its design.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
McKendree, Jean and Carroll, John M. (1987): Impact of Feedback Content in Initial Learning of an Office System. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jorg and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 87 - 2nd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 1-4, 1987, Stuttgart, Germany. pp. 855-859.
“The ability to discriminate between correct and incorrect behavior is essential for learning to take place. This is usually accomplished via feedback from the environment. However, there has been little systematic work on principles of feedback in order to promote optimal acquisition of new skills. The study presented in this paper investigated different types of feedback content in the context of an on-line learning-by-doing tutorial for an office management system. The results suggest that blocking of errors by means of a "scenario machine" is a somewhat beneficial type of feedback, but that including positive content can make learning even more efficient. Feedback about the goals of tasks or the steps necessary to perform typical tasks were found to promote faster learning and better performance on tasks when informative feedback was withdrawn. Implications for design and analysis of interfaces are discussed.”
© All rights reserved McKendree and Carroll and/or North-Holland
Carroll, John M., Herder, Richard E. and Sawtelle, Don (1987): TaskMapper. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jorg and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 87 - 2nd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 1-4, 1987, Stuttgart, Germany. pp. 973-978.
“This is a description of a prototype office information system called TaskMapper. The key interface idea in TaskMapper is to display the user's activity as a path in a two dimensional map. Thus instead of working with a "messy desk", the user works with a task-oriented layout of recently accessed data. The key system idea in TaskMapper is to represent applications as views on collections of objects drawn from a single database. Instead of working with separate bundles of function and data ("applications") that must communicate constantly to provide even the appearance of integration, the user defines and works with relevant subsets of a single database.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or North-Holland
Black, John B., Carroll, John M. and McGuigan, Stuart M. (1987): What kind of minimal instruction manual is the most effective. In: Graphics Interface 87 (CHI+GI 87) April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. pp. 159-162.
Aaronson, Amy and Carroll, John M. (1987): Intelligent help in a one--shot dialog: A protocol study. In: Graphics Interface 87 (CHI+GI 87) April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. pp. 163-168.
Catrambone, Richard and Carroll, John M. (1987): Learning a word processing system with training whells and guided exploration. In: Graphics Interface 87 (CHI+GI 87) April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. pp. 169-174.
Smith, Philip J., Soloway, Elliot and Carroll, John M. (1987): Intelligent Tutoring and Help Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. p. 280.
“In recent years, considerable effort has been focused on the development of computational models of expert human performance. One class of expertise that has been studied is that of human tutors. The resultant intelligent tutoring systems are intended to provide the user with the "instructional advantage that a sophisticated human tutor can provide," (Anderson, Boyle and Reiser, 1985). This line of research is of interest to the human factors community for two reasons: 1. Intelligent tutoring systems offer potential tools for use in training and educational programs, a long-standing area of interest to human factors researchers and practitioners; 2. there are many human factors and human performance issues that should be addressed in the design of such tutoring systems. The speakers in this special session will provide an overview of research issues in the design of intelligent tutoring systems. Relevant conceptual issues and approaches will be highlighted in the context of a variety of application areas. Included will be a discussion of the "use of intelligent system monitors that allow users to integrate the time and effort spent on learning with actual use of a system", (Carroll and McKendree, 1987).”
© All rights reserved Smith et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Carroll, John M. (1987): Using the User's Intelligence to Design Intelligent Interfaces. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 281-284.
“To design intelligent interfaces it can be useful to start from a consideration of what users already know and expect to do. This is not the only way to design intelligent interfaces and in fact not the typical method in practice. Several examples are discussed to urge that current practice be broadened to correct this.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Human Factors Society
Carroll, John M. (ed.) (1987): Interfacing Thought: Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1987): Paradox of the Active User. In: Carroll, John M. (ed.). "Interfacing Thought: Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction". Cambridge, MA: MIT Presspp. 80-111
Carroll, John M. and McKendree, Jean (1987): Interface Design Issues for Advice-Giving Expert Systems. In Communications of the ACM, 30 (1) pp. 14-31.
Carroll, John M. (1987): Interfacing Thought: Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction (Bradford Books). The MIT Press
Carroll, John M. and Rosson, Mary Beth (1987): The paradox of the active user. In: Carroll, John M. (ed.). "Interfacing Thought: Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction (Bradford Books)". The MIT Presspp. 80-111
Cited on the following page:
» Semiotics and Human-Computer Interaction: [Not yet published]
Carroll, John M. and Campbell, Robert L. (1986): Softening Up Hard Science: Reply to Newell and Card. In Human-Computer Interaction, 2 (3) pp. 227-249.
“A source of intellectual overhead periodically encountered by scientists is the call to be "hard," to insure good science by imposing severe methodological strictures. Newell and Card (1985) have undertaken to impose such strictures on the psychology of human-computer interaction. Although their discussion contributes to theoretical debate in human-computer interaction by setting a reference point, their specific argument fails. Their program is unmotivated, is severely limited, and suffers from these limitations in principle. A top priority for the psychology of human-computer interaction should be the articulation of an alternative explanatory program, one that takes as its starting point the need to understand the real problems involved in providing better computer tools for people to use.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Campbell and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (1986): Psychology and the user interface: Science is soft at the frontier. In: Graphics Interface 86 May 26-30, 1986, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. pp. 186-187.
Carroll, John M. and Mazur, Sandra A. (1986): LisaLearning. In Computer, 19 (11) pp. 35-49.
Carroll, John M. and Kay, Dana S. (1985): Prompting, Feedback and Error Correction in the Design of a Scenario Machine. In: Borman, Lorraine and Curtis, Bill (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 85 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 14-18, 1985, San Francisco, California. pp. 149-153.
“The recent technical literature abounds with a variety of studies documenting and analyzing the problems people encounter in learning to use contemporary computer equipment. This has been a major focus of the recent work in our laboratory ([6], [9]). The project such work must entrain is the development of design approaches to these problems. We have been and are developing alternate designs for training manuals and for in-system training ([2], [4], [5], [7]).”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Kay and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M., Mack, Robert L., Lewis, Clayton H., Grischkowsky, Nancy L. and Anderson, Scott R. (1985): Exploring Exploring a Word Processor. In Human-Computer Interaction, 1 (3) pp. 283-307.
“Studies of people learning to use contemporary word-processing equipment suggest that effective learning is often "active," proceeding by self-initiated problem solving. The instructional manuals that accompany current word-processing systems often penalize and impede active learning. A set of instructional materials was constructed for a commercial word processor, specifically designed to support and encourage an active learning orientation. These "guided exploration" (GE) materials are modular, task oriented, procedurally incomplete, and address error recognition and recovery. Learners using the GE materials spent substantially less time yet still performed better on a transfer of learning posttest than learners using commercially developed self-study materials. Qualitative analysis of aspects of the learning protocols of participants suggested that active learning mechanisms may underlie this advantage.”
© All rights reserved Carroll et al. and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. and Mack, Robert L. (1985): Metaphor, Computing Systems, and Active Learning. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 22 (1) pp. 39-57.
“Recent discussion has resolved the question of how prior knowledge organizes new learning into the technical definition and study of "metaphor". Some theorists have adopted an "operational" approach, focusing on the manifest effects of suggesting metaphoric comparisons to learners. Some have resolved the question formally into a "structural" definition of metaphor. However, structural and operation approaches typically ignore the goal-directed learner-initiated learning process through which metaphors become relevant and effective in learning. Taking this process seriously affords an analysis of metaphor that explains why metaphors are intrinsically open-ended and how their open-endedness stimulates the construction of mental models.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and Mack and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. (1985): What's in a Name: An Essay in the Psychology of Reference. New York, W.H. Freeman
“Presents a pragmatic theory of names addressing traditional philosophical puzzles of references, meaning, causal relations, and use. Applies the theory to HCI naming domains (file names, command language design).”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or W.H. Freeman
Carroll, John M. and Carrithers, C. (1984): Blocking learner error states in a training-wheels system. In Human Factors, 26 (4) pp. 377-389.
Carroll, John M. and Carrithers, C. (1984): Training Wheels in a User Interface. In Communications of the ACM, 27 (8) pp. 800-806.
Carroll, John M. (1984): Minimalist Design for Active Users. In: Shackel, Brian (ed.) INTERACT 84 - 1st IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 4-7, 1984, London, UK. pp. 39-44.
“Recent studies in computer human factors indicate that novice learners of office systems are "active", preferring self-initiated problem solving to rote drill and practice as a learning strategy. But in high-function systems users may need help in exploring basic functions without being distracted by advanced material. Two experimental approaches to this problem are outlined: The MINIMAL MANUAL attempts to support active learning by providing concise instruction focussed on easy-to-understand goals. The TRAINING WHEELS WORD PROCESSOR encourages exploration of basic functions by disabling the more advanced functions that can distract and confuse novices.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or North-Holland
Mack, Robert L., Lewis, Clayton H. and Carroll, John M. (1983): Learning to Use Word Processors: Problems and Prospects. In ACM Transactions on Information Systems, 1 (3) pp. 254-271.
“Computer text editors are powerful, but complex, tools. Particularly in the early stages of learning, the complexity of these tools can cause serious problems for users who are not experienced with computers. The problems of new users were studied by asking the users to think out loud while learning to use word-processing systems. In this paper several of the most typical and debilitating problems these users had understanding and following directions in using training manuals, as well as problems understanding and using interface functions to accomplish word processing tasks, are taxonomized and analyzed. Approaches for improving design features of the interface functions and the training methods used for learning are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Mack et al. and/or ACM Press
Carroll, John M. (1983): Presentation and form in user interface architecture. In Byte, 8 (12) pp. 113-122.
Carroll, John M. and Thomas, John C. (1982): Metaphor and the cognitive representation of computing systems. In IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 12 (2) pp. 107-116.
Carroll, John M. (1982): Learning, Using and Designing Filenames and Command Paradigms. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 1 (4) pp. 327-346.
“What are names for computer files and commands like? How do people go about naming them? How do the properties such names can have affect the ease with which they can be learned and used? This paper sketches a general view of names and naming in which the linguistic forms that names take are deliberately structured to reflect functional interrelations between their referents. This view is then applied to an analysis of personal filenames chosen by CMS users and to a series of experimental studies of command languages.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Taylor and Francis
Carroll, John M. (1982): Creative Names for Personal Files in an Interactive Computing Environment. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 16 (4) pp. 405-438.
“The names with which people refer to their personal computer files in an interactive computing environment were analyzed as a case study of purposeful creative naming behavior. Staff members at a research laboratory were asked to annotate a listing of their filenames by appending descriptive exegeses. Overwhelmingly, the very form of the filenames organized them into structured paradigms, coextending with clusterings of the files by conceptual and functional content (as revealed by examination of the rendered descriptive exegeses). The pervasive existance of such paradigmatic structure in spontaneously created names has implications both for traditional and current philosophical analyses of names (where non-paradigmatic names, such as Aristotle have been taken to be typical) and, more specifically, for the potential utility and design of filenaming facilities in computing systems. Part of speech and abbreviation strategies were also analyzed and compared with prior laboratory research. They were shown to correlate with filetype classification, indicating this as a further relevant parameter for the design of filename facilities.”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Academic Press
Malhotra, Ashok, Thomas, John C., Carroll, John M. and Miller, Lance A. (1980): Cognitive Processes in Design. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 12 (2) pp. 119-140.
“This paper reports on a observational study and 2 experimental studies of the design process deriving from our interest in improving the design of computer software. A model of design is developed from these studies. This consists of 3 interacting processes: goal elaboration, design generation and design evaluation. The experimental studies show that design specifications are often incorrect and incomplete with different designers paying more or less attention to different aspects of the design. Finally, from the design model and the results of the experimental studies, a number of aids to the design process are developed and discussed.”
© All rights reserved Malhotra et al. and/or Academic Press
Carroll, John M. (1980): Toward a Structural Psychology of Cinema. The Hague, Mouton De Gruyter
“Criticizes the traditional "film language" metaphor and argues that transformational generative linguistic theory provides a better framework for developing a semiotics of cinema. The argument is developed through presentation of a partial grammar of (Hollywood era) cinema, identification of trans-linguistic (semiotic) principles (gapping/coordination reduction), and two experiments in film perception. ”
© All rights reserved Carroll and/or Mouton De Gruyter
Thomas, John C. and Carroll, John M. (1979): The psychological study of design. In Design Studies, 1 (1) pp. 5-11.
Carroll, John M., Thomas, John C. and Malhotra, A. (1979): A clinical-experimental analysis of design problem solving. In Design Studies, 1 (2) pp. 84-92.
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