Publication statistics
Pub. period:1988-1995
Pub. count:12
Number of co-authors:15
Co-authors
Number of publications with 3 favourite co-authors:
Michael S. Wogalter:5Kenneth R. Laughery:4Kent P. Vaubel:3 Productive colleagues
Stephen L. Young's 3 most productive colleagues in number of publications:
Michael S. Wogalte..:60Kenneth R. Laugher..:20Lila Laux:12
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Knowledge is commonly socially constructed, through collaborative efforts towards shared objectives or by dialogues and challenges brought about by different persons' perspectives.
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-- G. Salomon (in "Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations")
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Stephen L. Young
Publications by Stephen L. Young (bibliography)
Young, Stephen L., Wogalter, Michael S., Laughery, Kenneth R., Magurno, Amy and Lovvoll, David (1995): Relative Order and Space Allocation of Message Components in Hazard Warning Signs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 969-973.
“Standards, guidelines, and research findings suggest that safety signs should generally contain four components: signal word, hazard, consequence and instruction statements. The purpose of this research is to determine the relative importance of different safety sign components. Two experiments examined this issue by having subjects construct a set of warning signs from component sections. In Experiment 1, participants manipulated component sections and assembled them onto a metal plate (of limited size). In Experiment 2, subjects worked with a technician to produce the signs on a computer. The relative importance of the individual components was determined by examining (1) use vs. omission rates, (2) size, and (3) order. The results show that few subjects used all the components in their warnings. Participants enlarged certain statements (Experiment 1) or added pictorials (Experiment 2) which necessitated the omission of other, presumably less-important, elements. The order of sign components was consistent only for signal words, which were placed generally at the top. The results suggest that, for certain hazards, the overall quality of information conveyed by a sign might be improved by eliminating or making smaller less important information, while simultaneously increasing the size of more relevant verbal information (or adding pictorials).”
© All rights reserved Young et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Laughery, Kenneth R., Wogalter, Michael S. and Young, Stephen L. (eds.) (1994): Human factors perspectives on warnings : selections from Human Factors and Ergonomics Society annual meetings, 1980-1993. Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Bohannon, N. Kimberly and Young, Stephen L. (1993): Effect of Warnings in Advertising on Adolescents' Perceptions of Risk for Alcohol Consumption. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting 1993. pp. 974-978.
“The present study examined the effect of warning labels in alcohol advertising on the perception of risk for alcohol consumption. Under incidental conditions, subjects from two age groups, young (M = 13.6 years) and older (M = 23.3 years), examined a collection of magazine ads. Three of the ads in the booklet were for alcoholic beverages and these were either accompanied by a warning or the warning was absent. When present, the warnings were manipulated by the orthogonal combination of text voice (2nd vs. 3rd person) and pictorial (presence vs. absence) in a between-subjects design. A fifth condition served as the no-warning control. After examining the magazine ads, subjects answered a questionnaire which assessed several dimensions related to the ads: number and type of ads, attractiveness of the ads, and number and type of warnings in the ads. Examination of the questions dealing with the risk of alcohol consumption indicated that adolescents rated their own risk lower than the risk to adolescents in general, but that this bias in risk ratings was not evident when warnings were present. There were also several other age and gender effects. While no individual warning manipulation was found to be consistently superior to another, the results suggest that warnings can be effective in producing proper estimations of risk in different age populations.”
© All rights reserved Bohannon and Young and/or Human Factors Society
Vaubel, Kent P. and Young, Stephen L. (1992): Components of Perceived Risk for Consumer Products. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 494-498.
“The present study examined the underlying dimensions associated with perceived risk for consumer products. Eighty undergraduate students evaluated 40 products using seventeen rating questions. Principal components analysis was then performed on the ratings. Results indicated the presence of three underlying components or dimensions along which the products varied. The first component dealt with qualitative aspects of the risks associated with a product, such as the degree to which potential hazards were known (or knowable) and the immediacy of their onset. The second component concerned subjects' familiarity with the product. The third component was associated with quantitative aspects of the risks and reflected notions about the magnitude of the potential harm (in terms of the number of potential victims) that might be incurred as a result of using the product. Subsequent regression analyses revealed that each dimension was significantly related to subjects' rated intent to act cautiously with a product. Overall, these results suggest that people do not perceive consumer products unidimensionally. Rather, such perceptions are best conceptualized as reflecting multiple underlying facets.”
© All rights reserved Vaubel and Young and/or Human Factors Society
Laughery, Kenneth R., Young, Stephen L. and Rowe, Anna (1992): Swimming Pool Diving Accidents: Human Factors Analyses of Case Study Data. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 598-602.
“As many as 350 serious spinal cord injuries occur in the United States every year as a result of diving into swimming pools. While there is substantial data on the demographics of injured divers and the events surrounding their injuries, there has been little analysis of the human factors issues associated with this type of accident. Data from 12 swimming pool diving accidents were analyzed in terms of their human factors issues, and the data revealed a number of consistent findings. By virtue of the fact that pools are fairly common, people generally perceive them to be safe. Compounding this sense of security are several interesting perceptual issues about the water depth and the potential risks. People inherently overestimate distances under water, and this effect is exacerbated by cloudy water. Also, all of the divers in this study were young males, who tend to be excessively optimistic and who hold an unrealistic sense of control over potential hazards. This characteristic of male divers was substantiated by the fact that, even when they knew the water was shallow, they unsuccessfully attempted a "shallow dive". In addition to these perceptions and control factors, there appears to be a lack of appreciation of the hazards associated with diving into swimming pools. Quadriplegia or death are not commonly perceived to be a consequence of diving. Several suggestions are offered which could lead to a reduction in the number and magnitude of swimming pool diving accidents. One approach is to provide an appreciation of the hazards and consequences associated with diving so people can exercise reasonable judgment about when and where to dive.”
© All rights reserved Laughery et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Young, Stephen L., Wogalter, Michael S. and Brelsford, Jr. John W. (1992): Relative Contribution of Likelihood and Severity of Injury to Risk Perceptions. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 1014-1018.
“The degree of caution that people are willing to take for a given product is largely determined by their perceptions of the risk associated with that product. Research suggests that risk perceptions are determined by the objective likelihood or probability of encountering potential hazards (Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 1979). However, there is also research suggesting that objective likelihood plays little or no role in determining risk perceptions. Rather, risk is determined by the subjective dimension of the hazard or in other words, the severity of injury (Wogalter, Desaulniers and Brelsford, 1986, 1987). The present research examined aspects of these two studies in an attempt to reconcile the observed differences. Subjects evaluated either the Wogalter et al. (1986, 1987) products or the Slovic et al. (1979) items on eight rating questions. Results demonstrated that severity of injury was the foremost predictor of perceived risk for the Wogalter products, but that likelihood of injury was primarily responsible for ratings of risk for the Slovic items. The two lists differed substantially on all the dimensions evaluated, suggesting that the content of the lists is responsible for the contrary findings. In a second study, subjects rated another set of generic consumer products. These ratings showed a pattern of results similar to the Wogalter products. Overall, this research: (a) explains the basis for conflicting results in the risk perception literature, and (b) demonstrates that severity of injury, and not likelihood of injury, is the primary determinant of people's perceptions of risk for common consumer products.”
© All rights reserved Young et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Godfrey, Sandra S., Laughery, Kenneth R., Young, Stephen L., Vaubel, Kent P., Brelsford, John W., Laughery, Keith A. and Horn, Elizabeth (1991): The New Alcohol Warning Labels: How Noticeable Are They?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 446-450.
Laughery, Sr. Kenneth R., Rowe-Hallbert, Anna L., Young, Stephen L., Vaubel, Kent P. and Laux, Lila (1991): Effects of Explicitness in Conveying Severity Information in Product Warnings. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 481-485.
Young, Stephen L. (1991): Increasing the Noticeability of Warnings: Effects of Pictorial, Color, Signal Icon and Border. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 580-584.
“Because of the importance of noticeability on subsequent comprehension and compliance to warnings, guidelines suggest increasing the salience or conspicuity of warnings. Surprisingly, only a small amount of research has examined different methods of increasing the noticeability of warnings. Therefore, the current research orthogonally manipulated four salience variables (pictorial, color, signal icon and border) to determine their effect on noticeability of warning information. Subjects viewed 96 simulated alcohol labels on a computer, half with a warning and half without. Subjects indicated whether or not a warning was on the label and response latencies were recorded. The results showed that warnings containing a pictorial, color or an icon had significantly faster response times than warnings without them. However, the addition of a border did not improve response times. More detailed analyses showed interactions between the four salience manipulations. These results demonstrate that pictorials, color and icons can enhance the noticeability of warning information. Moreover, it is clear that these salience manipulations interact with each other and that they should not be used indiscriminately without adequate knowledge of these interactions.”
© All rights reserved Young and/or Human Factors Society
Laughery, Sr. Kenneth R. and Young, Stephen L. (1991): An Eye Scan Analysis of Accessing Product Warning Information. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 585-589.
Young, Stephen L., Brelsford, John W. and Wogalter, Michael S. (1990): Judgments of Hazard, Risk, and Danger: Do They Differ?. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 503-507.
“There were three purposes of the present research. The first was to test whether some of the discrepancies found in the hazard and risk perception literature were due to differences between the connotations of the terms hazard and risk. The second purpose was to examine the relationship between willingness to read warnings and generalized cautious intent, as well as other relevant variables suggested by past literature. The third purpose was to examine the relation between objective measures of injury (e.g., frequencies of hospital emergency room admissions) and people's subjective perceptions. The results showed that the expressions of hazardous, risky, dangerous and hazardous-to-use connote the some meaning to lay participants. Strong intercorrelations were found between overall unsafeness (a composite of the four hazard-risk expressions), injury severity, cautious intent, and willingness to read warnings. While injury likelihood played a small part in the prediction of willingness to read warnings, the results indicated that overall unsafeness (and severity of injury) play the foremost role in people's judgments of whether to read warnings and to act cautiously. No relationship was observed between objective measures of injury frequency and people's subjective perceptions of injury likelihood which is taken as a further indication that people do not readily use injury likelihood in their judgments of product safety. The implications are two-fold. First, the results suggest that lay persons do not interpret the term risk in the same way as do experts. These results suggest that other terminology and language may be needed to express probability to lay persons. Second, the results suggest that designers of warnings and educational materials should focus their attention to ways that appropriately communication how badly a person can get hurt, rather than (or to a lesser extent) the likelihood of getting hurt.”
© All rights reserved Young et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Young, Stephen L. and Wogalter, Michael S. (1988): Memory of Instruction Manual Warnings: Effects of Pictorial Icons and Conspicuous Print. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 905-909.
“The present research sought to determine whether the salience of warning messages would improve the memory of warnings in proceduralized instructions. Subjects studied one of four instruction manuals for a gas-powered electric generator under the guise that they would later operate the generator. In the manual, the appearance of eight different warning messages were altered in two ways: 1) The verbal messages were printed in either conspicuous print (larger with color highlighting) or in plain print (same as the other text). 2) The verbal warning messages were either accompanied by meaningfully-related icons or the icons were absent. Three kinds of memory tests were given to subjects. The results showed that subjects who received the manual containing Conspicuous Print, Icons Present warnings recalled the verbal warning content and the semantic learning of the icons significantly better than subjects who received one of the three manuals. Implications for the design of instruction manual warnings are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Young and Wogalter and/or Human Factors Society
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