Stephen J. Payne
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"Stephen Payne"
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Publications by Stephen J. Payne (bibliography)
» 2009 «
Duggan, Geoffrey B. and Payne, Stephen J. (2009): Text skimming: The process and effectiveness of foraging through text under time pressure. In Journal of Experimental Psychology, 15 p. 22
“Is Skim reading effective? How do readers allocate their attention selectively? The authors report 3 experiments that use expository texts and allow readers only enough time to read half of each document. Experiment 1 found that, relative to reading half the text, skimming improved memory for important ideas from a text but did not improve memory of less important details or of inferences made from information within the text. Experiment 2 found no advantage of skimming over reading the first or second half of every paragraph. Two final experiments using a hierarchical, Website-like layout of documents showed that the advantage of skimming found in Experiment 1 was dependent on the linkages between pages and, thus, the ease with which participants could navigate through the text. Data on page-by-page reading times and eye-tracking analyses from Experiment 2 indicated that Skim readers spent more time reading text that was earlier in the paragraph, toward the top of the page and in an earlier page of the document. These findings were interpreted as evidence in support of a “satisficing” account of skimming process. ”
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Duggan, Geoffrey B. and Payne, Stephen J. (2009): Text skimming: The process and effectiveness of foraging through text under time pressure. In Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15 (3) pp. 228-242
“Is Skim reading effective? How do readers allocate their attention selectively? The authors report 3 experiments that use expository texts and allow readers only enough time to read half of each document. Experiment 1 found that, relative to reading half the text, skimming improved memory for important ideas from a text but did not improve memory of less important details or of inferences made from information within the text. Experiment 2 found no advantage of skimming over reading the first or second half of every paragraph. Two final experiments using a hierarchical, Website-like layout of
documents showed that the advantage of skimming found in Experiment 1 was dependent on the linkages between pages and, thus, the ease with which participants could navigate through the text. Data on page-by-page reading times and eye-tracking analyses from Experiment 2 indicated that Skim readers spent more time reading text that was earlier in the paragraph, toward the top of the page and in an earlier page of the document. These findings were interpreted as evidence in support of a “satisficing” account of skimming process. ”
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» 2008 «
Duggan, Geoffrey B. and Payne, Stephen J. (2008): Knowledge in the head and on the web: using topic expertise to aid search. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 39-48. Available online
“The importance of background knowledge for effective searching on the Web is not well understood. Participants were given trivia questions on two topics and asked to answer them first using background knowledge and second by searching on the Web. Knowledge of a topic predicted search performance on that topic for all questions and, more importantly, for questions for which participants did not already know the answer. In terms of process, greater topic knowledge led to less time being spent on each Webpage, faster decisions to give up a line of inquiry and shorter queries being entered into the search engine. A more complete theory-led understanding of these effects would assist workers in a whole range of Web-related professions.”
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» 2007 «
Reader, William R. and Payne, Stephen J. (2007): Allocating Time Across Multiple Texts: Sampling and Satisficing. In Human-Computer Interaction, 22 (3) pp. 263-298
“We report two studies investigating readers' ability to allocate limited time adaptively across online texts of varying difficulty. In both studies participants were asked to learn about the human heart and were free to allocate time to 4 separate online texts about the heart but did not have enough time to read them all thoroughly. Of particular interest was whether readers attempted to select the best text for them (by sampling the texts before reading) or to monitor texts while reading them and continue reading any text judged good enough (a satisficing strategy). We argue that both strategies can be considered adaptive, depending on properties of readers, texts, and tasks. Experiment 1 tested readers with a range of background knowledge and allowed them either 7 or 15 min study time. It showed that participants were adaptive in how they allocated their time in that more knowledgeable readers spent more time reading more difficult texts. Satisficing was a much more common strategy than sampling. Experiment 2 showed that providing outline overviews of each text dramatically increased the number of participants using a sampling strategy so that it became the modal strategy. However, this change in strategy had no effect on learning. Outline overviews presumably changed readers' perception of the ease with which relevant dimensions of text quality can be judged.”
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Begole, Bo, Payne, Stephen J., Churchill, Elisabeth, Amant, Robert St., Gilmore, David and Rosson, Mary Beth (eds.) CHI 07 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 28-May 03, 2007, San Jose, CA, USA.
Payne, Stephen J., Duggan, Geoffrey B. and Neth, Hansjörg (2007): Discretionary task interleaving: Heuristics for time allocation in cognitive foraging. In Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136 pp. 370-388
» 2006 «
Pitman, J. A. and Payne, Stephen J. (2006): Creating names for retrieval by self and others. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 25 (6) pp. 489-496
“Two experiments aimed to explore the general usability of filenames that were either chosen for personal use or designed for another user, within a document-filing scenario. Both experiments revealed a strong benefit for using self-chosen names over using names that were chosen by another for their personal use. However, both experiments also showed that participants could to some extent adapt their chosen names for use by a wider population. In experiment one, users could recall these 'designed' names more accurately than names that had been chosen for personal use by another (although this difference was not evident in a recognition test). Experiment two supported this effect; names designed for general use were more accurately recalled by another than the names designed for self-use after two sessions of use. Names designed for general use employed higher frequency words than did the self-chosen names, which supports the view that the benefit for self-chosen names partly lies in their exploitation of idiosyncratic associations.”
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Payne, Stephen J. and Reader, William R. (2006): Constructing structure maps of multiple on-line texts. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64 (5) pp. 461-474
“We propose that in many contexts of text use, people need to consult a mental representation of the mapping between the content of documents and their structure. We report three experiments that investigate the construction and use of such 'structure maps.' In each experiment people read multiple on-line texts on the same topic, and then searched for specific pieces of information in those texts. Search performance was compared with people who had not read the texts. People who had read multiple texts were, to some extent, able to recall where information was in the texts as shown by the locations in which they first searched (Experiments 1 and 2) or the number of pages opened during a search (Experiment 3). We also found that readers of multiple texts were able to find facts in those texts faster than were people who had not read the texts, and that this speedup was not a simple effect of faster reading while scanning for facts (Experiments 1 and 2) or of greater familiarity with the general topic (Experiment 3). These incidental effects of reading occurred whether or not participants were warned before reading that they would have subsequently to search the texts and were not compromised by transformations in the appearance of text (double column to single column) that disrupted the positions of facts on pages (Experiment 2). We conclude that readers spontaneously construct structure maps of multiple electronic texts, even when their reading goal stresses abstraction of meaning across sources. Structure maps likely play a vital role in many aspects of text use, such as re-reading and knowledge updating, so that their support is an important consideration in the design of on-line texts.”
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» 2003 «
Payne, Stephen J. (2003): Users' Mental Models: The Very Ideas. In: Carroll, John M. "HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks". Morgan Kaufman Publishers pp. 135-154
» 2001 «
Payne, Stephen J., Howes, Andrew and Reader, William R. (2001): Adaptively distributing cognition: a decision-making perspective on human-computer interaction. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 20 (5) pp. 339-346
“Two important phenomena in human-computer interaction (HCI) are considered: the reliance on external information rather than memory, and the interleaving of planning and action. These phenomena are important, it is argued, because they challenge some particular cognitive models. However, we reject those views, influential in the HCI literature, that phenomena like these require radically new conceptions of cognition or behaviour. It is shown that the phenomena are not universal laws of behaviour, but that instead people decide how much to remember and how much to plan according to a consideration of the costs and benefits of different strategies. Thus the classical cognitive conception of humans as adaptive decision makers is vital for a deep understanding of HCI.”
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Duggan, Geoffrey B. and Payne, Stephen J. (2001): Interleaving reading and acting while following procedural instructions. In Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7 pp. 297-307
» 2000 «
Ruddle, Roy A., Howes, Andrew, Payne, Stephen J. and Jones, Dylan M. (2000): The Effects of Hyperlinks on Navigation in Virtual Environments. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53 (4) pp. 551-581
“Hyperlinks introduce discontinuities of movement to 3-D virtual environments (VEs). Nine independent attributes of hyperlinks are defined and their likely effects on navigation in VEs are discussed. Four experiments are described in which participants repeatedly navigated VEs that were either conventional (i.e. obeyed the laws of Euclidean space), or contained hyperlinks. Participants learned spatial knowledge slowly in both types of environment, echoing the findings of previous studies that used conventional VEs. The detrimental effects on participants' spatial knowledge of using hyperlinks for movement were reduced when a time-delay was introduced, but participants still developed less accurate knowledge than they did in the conventional VEs. Visual continuity had a greater influence on participants' rate of learning than continuity of movement, and participants were able to exploit hyperlinks that connected together disparate regions of a VE to reduce travel time.”
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» 1999 «
O'Hara, Kenton P. and Payne, Stephen J. (1999): Planning and the User Interface: The Effects of Lockout Time and Error Recovery Cost. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 50 (1) pp. 41-59
“This paper reports three experiments which, through simple user-interface manipulations, examine a prediction derived from a rational analysis of problem solving: that increasing the cost of performing a problem-solving operator will increase the level of planning during problem solving and reduce the level of action in the world. The first experiment uses the slide-jump puzzle to look at the effects of imposing an implementation cost only on the undo operator of the interface to a task. The second experiment looks at problem solving with the eight-puzzle and imposes a system lockout delay after every operator application. In line with the predictions of the rational analysis model, both experiments demonstrate how these different manipulations of implementation cost result in more planning and shorter solution lengths when the operator implementation cost is high. The final experiment again uses a manipulation of lockout time and replicates the effects within the domain of a non-puzzle-like office administration type task.”
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Ruddle, Roy A., Payne, Stephen J. and Jones, Dylan M. (1999): Navigating Large-Scale Virtual Environments: What Differences Occur Between Helmet-Mounted and Desk-Top Displays?. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 8 (2) pp. 157-168
» 1998 «
Ruddle, Roy A., Payne, Stephen J. and Jones, Dylan M. (1998): Navigating Large-Scale 'Desk-Top' Virtual Buildings: Effects of Orientation Aids and Familiarity. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7 (2) pp. 179-192
» 1996 «
Trudel, Carol-Ina and Payne, Stephen J. (1996): Self-Monitoring During Exploration of an Interactive Device. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45 (6) pp. 723-747
“We report four experiments in which we manipulated the conditions under which subjects explored an unfamiliar interactive device without the benefit of assistance or instruction. Our aim was to increase the amount of knowledge subjects acquired about the device and to influence how efficient they were at later applying the operational procedures they discovered. The interventions were to interrupt subjects' exploration at regular intervals and ask them to verbally report on what they had learned so far (Experiment I) or to state their future intention (Experiment II). Both manipulations yielded significant benefits, when compared to subjects who explored the same device without such interruptions. In Experiment III there were four conditions in which interrupted subjects reported on topics of different levels of relevance to the task. This experiment showed that it is the relevance of the verbalised content as opposed to an "incubation" period which affects performance in a beneficial manner. Finally we investigated whether it was necessary to employ external prompts to obtain these effects (Experiment IV). It was found that subjects were in fact able to effectively interrupt their work in order to review their progress.”
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Bibby, Peter A. and Payne, Stephen J. (1996): Instruction and Practice in Learning to Use a Device. In Cognitive Science, 20 (4) pp. 539-578
» 1995 «
Trudel, Carol-Ina and Payne, Stephen J. (1995): Reflection and Goal Management in Exploratory Learning. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 42 (3) pp. 307-339
“We report two experiments which examine the nature of exploratory learning of interactive devices. We argue that the success of exploratory learning is dependent on the degree to which learners reflect on their interactions, and on how well they manage their goals. In Experiment 1, a keystroke limit was imposed on subjects, i.e. a limit on the amount of physical interaction with the device. In addition some subjects were provided with a list of goals in order to help them manage their exploration. As predicted, the first intervention resulted in more successful learning as compared to the performance of subjects who explored without any constraints. Experimenter-provided goals also yielded some benefits, but had a much less strong effect than the keystroke limit. Experiment 2 confirmed and extended the main findings of the first experiment. Further, having noted that subjects preferred to switch opportunistically from goal to goal and mode to mode we predicted that limiting them to exploring one part of the device at a time would result in better learning. We found that imposing a keystroke limit or forcing subjects to explore one mode at a time led to large and significant improvements in exploratory learning. The goal list manipulation also apparently improved exploration, but to a lesser degree than the other two manipulations.”
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» 1994 «
Kerr, Michael P. and Payne, Stephen J. (1994): Learning to Use a Spreadsheet By Doing and By Watching. In Interacting with Computers, 6 (1) pp. 3-22
“An important practical question is: how should instruction for computer skills be designed to facilitate effective learning? The reported study examines the instructional efficacy of animated demonstrations within active and passive learning contexts of teaching basic spreadsheet skills. Four content-matched instructional regimes were compared: the commercially available tutorial (a 'scenario machine'), an animated demonstration of this tutorial being used, and problem-solving supported by either the user manual or a set of task-specific demonstrations. Acquired spreadsheet skills were then tested on a standard task. Results indicate a clear learning advantage of problem-solving, over prompted interaction (the scenario machine). The study suggests two distinctive roles that animations could exploit within computer instruction. Simply watching an animated demonstration can provide a useful introduction to complex interfaces; additionally, animations can be an effective 'example following' resource for more active problem-solving.”
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» 1993 «
Bibby, Peter A. and Payne, Stephen J. (1993): Internalization and the Use Specificity of Device Knowledge. In Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (1) pp. 25-56
“Four experiments were performed to test the relationship between instructionally derived knowledge and practice in the use of a simple device. Using a derivative of Kieras and Bovair's (1984) device, we show that different subjects can be given instructions that convey equivalent information but that lead to crossovers in the time to perform different tasks (i.e., one task is easier with one set of instructions, a second task is easier with other instructions). Experiment 1 shows that the performance crossover between question types perseveres when subjects relinquish the instructions, after they have been committed to memory. Experiment 2 shows that the performance crossover perseveres over considerable experience using the device. Experiment 3 shows that the crossover can disappear if sufficient practice is given with the particular question types. Experiments 2 and 3 taken together suggest that subjects may only be able to overcome the computational disadvantages of their initial instructional material by adopting task-specific strategies. Experiment 4 shows that when new problems are introduced after the point at which the crossover disappears then a new crossover appears, implying that, even with extended practice of operating the device and solving problems on the device, some features of the initial instructional device description are preserved and continue to determine the users' behavior. We argue that a definition of internalization coupled with Anderson's (1983, 1987) ACT* theory of skill acquisition provides a good account of these results.”
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Payne, Stephen J. (1993): Understanding Calendar Use. In Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (2) pp. 83-100
“This article is an interview study of calendar use and a cognitive analysis of the interactions between the design of calendars and the task of prospective remembering. The study and analysis are coordinated to present a general critique of current electronic calendar designs and to note opportunities for future designs. The interview data reveal continued use of paper calendars in a highly computerized setting. A key conclusion is that paper calendars support prospective remembering by promoting browsing of existing appointments during subsequent calendar keeping but that this advantage is compromised in current electronic designs. Other aspects of the interviews and the analyses address the representational limitations of both paper and electronic calendars. This research explores a methodology in which design implications of qualitative empirical data are understood and systematized through theoretical analyses of existing artifacts.”
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» 1992 «
Payne, Stephen J. and Howes, Andrew (1992): A Task-Action Trace for Exploratory Learners. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 11 (2) pp. 63-70
“We motivate and describe the design of a tool for exploratory learners. A task-action trace displays a history of user actions that collapses into verbal descriptions of task accomplishments, derived from a task-action grammar analysis of the interface. Previous tasks, and the actions through which the user achieved them, remain available for browsing; the display of actions shows those that were strictly necessary. We describe the implementation of such a tool for a simulation of the RATES line-diagnosis system. Preliminary empirical evaluation suggests that some users find the trace sufficiently helpful to interact with it repeatedly during the first 4 h of learning.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Howes, Andrew and Hill, Elain (1992): Conceptual Instructions Derived from an Analysis of Device Models. In International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 4 (1) pp. 35-57
“This article advances a heuristic for conceptual instruction, based on the yoked-state space (YSS) hypothesis about the contents of users' device models (Payne, 1987a; Payne, Squibb, & Howes, 1990). The YSS hypothesis suggests that users of a system need to understand the system's representation of the task domain. Accordingly, conceptual instructions should express the mapping from device objects onto goal-space objects, especially those aspects that are not visible at the user interface. Such instructions are developed for a menu-driven computer system based on the RATES system for performing remote diagnosis of telephone lines. A simple comparative experiment shows that novices who receive these instructions learn to use RATES more quickly than novices who receive only background instruction and a brief procedural manual. These results increase empirical support for the YSS hypothesis, and, at the same time, suggest a heuristic for the design of conceptual instructions.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Chesworth, Louise and Hill, Elaine (1992): Animated Demonstrations for Exploratory Learners. In Interacting with Computers, 4 (1) pp. 3-22
“In an animated demonstration the device's display behaves as if the device were in use. We investigate the instructional potential of a 'pure' version of animated demonstrations, in which there is no commentary or supporting documentation for the animation. Such animations are heavily used in video games (such as PacMan), but are rarely seen in computer-based office systems, although modern designs allow them to be readily and meaningfully implemented. We report two experiments that test the efficacy of animated demonstrations as an aid to exploratory learning of the MacDraw graphics editor. The animated demonstration is simulated by playing a short, uncommented, silent video recording of the screen-in-use. Experiment 1 shows that this technique offers large learning advantages over a no-instruction condition, and is, in our limited experiment, as effective as text-based instruction. Experiment 2 replicates the main effect of Experiment 1, again revealing a significant positive effect of a short animated demonstration on first-time exploratory learners. A notable feature of uncommented animation demonstrations is that they do not offer a complete method specification for the performance of any tasks. In the face of this limitation, their success as instructions can perhaps best be understood in terms of psychological models of performance that do not demand complete cognitive encoding of plans or methods.”
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» 1991 «
Payne, Stephen J. (1991): A Descriptive Study of Mental Models. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 10 (1) pp. 3-21
“A theoretical discussion of mental models is interwoven with conversational data from an interview study concerned with people's beliefs about the working of high-street bank machines. The data show that some users do spontaneously form explanatory models of bank machines, and further allow some insights into the ways in which models are constructed. The discussion focuses on the variety inherent in subjects' models; on the spontaneous analogies they invoke; on the use of cultural, linguistic metaphor and its relation to explanatory models; and on the observed preference for references to direct empirical experience.”
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Payne, Stephen J. (1991): Display-Based Action at the User Interface. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 35 (3) pp. 275-289
“This paper examines the hypothesis that information flow, from device to user, is a vital part of skilled activity in human-computer interaction. Two studies are reported. The first study questions users of keyboard-driven word processors about the effects of cursor-movement, finding and word-deletion commands in various contexts. The second study questions users of the Apple Macintosh-based systems, MacWrite and Microsoft Word, about the behaviour of the menu-driven find command. In both studies it is discovered that users often do not know the precise effects of frequently-used actions, such as the final position of the cursor, even though these effects are vital for future planning. It is concluded that even experienced users must acquire the information they need from the device's display during interactions, and that they do not necessarily remember regular details that are available in this way. This conclusion conflicts with those current models of user psychology that assume routine skill relies on complete mental specifications of methods for performing tasks.”
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» 1990 «
Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Semantic Analysis During Exploratory Learning. In: Carrasco, Jane and Whiteside, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 90 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference 1990, Seattle, Washington,USA. pp. 399-405.
“This paper addresses the problem of how a novice computer user, engaged in exploratory learning, accounts for the behaviour of the device. Exploratory learning is the norm for many users who encounter computers in the work place. Exploratory learners must acquire methods from a suboptimal stream of task directed behaviour and its observable effects. A candidate model of analysis, EXPL is taken as the baseline for the development of a new model, called Explor, which employs semantic knowledge of the lexical items used in the interface to relate user actions to system responses. The strengths and weaknesses of Explor are illustrated and discussed.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Squibb, Helen R. and Howes, Andrew (1990): The Nature of Device Models: The Yoked State Space Hypothesis and Some Experiments with Text Editors. In Human-Computer Interaction, 5 (4) pp. 415-444
“To construct a conceptual model of a device, the user must conceptualize the device's representation of the task domain. This knowledge can be represented by three components: a device-based problem space, which specifies the ontology of the device in terms of the objects that can be manipulated and their interrelations, plus the operators that perform the manipulations; a goal space, which represents the objects in terms of which user's goals are expressed; and a semantic mapping, which determines how goal space objects are represented in the device space. The yoked state space (YSS) model allows an important distinction concerning the mental representation of procedures. If a step in a procedure specifies a transformation of the user's device space, then it has an autonomous meaning for the user, independent of its role in the sequence or method. The device space provides a figurative account of the operator. However, some operators do not affect the minimal device space, and their only meaning for the user derives from their role in a method: The method affords an operational account of the operator. Figurative accounts can be constructed from operational accounts only by elaborating the device space with new concepts. The YSS is illustrated through a simple description of a device model for a cut-and-paste text editor. Three experiments addressed the claims of this model. The first experiment used a sorting paradigm to show that users do acquire the novel device space concept of a string of adjacent characters (including space and return). The second and third experiments asked novices to make inferences about text editor behavior on the basis of simple demonstrations. They showed that (a) the availability of the string concept is critically dependent on the details of the interface design, (b) figurative accounts of the copy operation afford more efficient methods and may be promoted by appropriate names for procedure steps, and (c) a conceptual model may transfer from one device to another. Together, the three experiments supported the YSS hypothesis.”
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Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Display-Based Competence: Towards User Models for Menu-Driven Interfaces. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 33 (6) pp. 637-655
“This paper discusses the critical role played by aspects of the display in the use of many computer systems, especially those driven by menus. We outline a formal model of "display-based competence" by extending the Task-Action Grammar notation (Payne & Green, 1986). The model, D-TAG (for display-oriented task-action grammar) is illustrated with examples for the well-known Macintosh desk-top interface, and from a more deeply-nested menu interface to a device used for the remote testing of telephone lines (RATES). D-TAG exploits two extensions of TAG to address important aspects of interface consistency. The most important extension uses a featural description of the display to capture the role of the display in structuring task-action mappings; the second describes the "side-effects" of a task, i.e. those effects not described by the semantic attributes of a task. By embedding these extensions within the organizing framework of TAG's feature-grammar, we are able to develop descriptions of interfaces which highlight aspects of (display) design that are outside the scope of other formal user models.”
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Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Looking HCI in the I. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 185-191.
“Despite its name, the field of human-computer interaction has not devoted much research attention to the nature of interaction. This paper begins such an effort by focussing on the role of the user interface as a resource for action. A simple notation for describing human-computer interactions, based on Clark and Schaefer's (1987, 1989) theory of conversational contributions is motivated and described. Interaction trees allow descriptions that expose the role of the device's detailed output dynamics in user activity.”
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Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Supporting Exploratory Learning. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 881-885.
“This paper introduces the notion of a Learning Support Environment (LSE), which is a collection of tools designed to support exploratory learning of computer applications. An implementation of an LSE for a particular interactive device is motivated in terms of an analysis of the cognitive problems faced by the exploratory learner. The implementation includes four support tools; a Task-action Trace, a Metaphor Micro-world, an Animation Machine and a Buddy Learner.”
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Payne, Stephen J. and Squibb, Helen R. (1990): Algebra Mal-Rules and Cognitive Accounts of Error. In Cognitive Science, 14 (3) pp. 445-481
» 1989 «
Payne, Stephen J. and Green, T. R. G. (1989): The Structure of Command Languages: An Experiment on Task-Action Grammar. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 30 (2) pp. 213-234
“Task-Action grammar (TAG), a formal model of the mental representation of task languages, makes predictions about the relative learnability of different command language structures. In particular TAG predicts that consistent structuring of task-action mappings across semantic domains of the task world will facilitate learning, but that consistent structuring within domains that are orthogonal to the semantic organization of the task world cannot be accommodated within users' mental representations, and so will not help learners. Other models of human-computer interaction either fail to address this distinction, or make quite different predictions. The prediction is tested by a syntax induction experiment in which subjects learn to operate a toy "lost property" computer system by a lexical command language. The results of the experiment are consistent with the predictions of task-action grammar.”
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» 1987 «
Payne, Stephen J. (1987): Complexity Problem Spaces: Modelling the Knowledge Needed to Use Interactive Devices. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jorg and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 87 - 2nd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 1-4, 1987, Stuttgart, Germany. pp. 203-208.
“A model is presented of the way users construct device-oriented problem spaces. The core of the model is a complex, layered problem space, consisting of two state spaces, the goal space and the device space, and a semantic mapping between them. Structural redundancy is identified as a formal property of such problem spaces that predicts the learnability of devices. Within the framework, two models of learning are described which lead to qualitatively different versions of the problem space: Operational accounts treat primitive interactions with the device as syntactic components of useful methods; Figurative accounts elaborate the conceptual model of the device to provide semantic interpretations of the primitive interactions.”
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» 1986 «
Payne, Stephen J. and Green, T. R. G. (1986): Task-Action Grammars: A Model of the Mental Representation of Task Languages. In Human-Computer Interaction, 2 (2) pp. 93-133
“A formal model of the mental representation of task languages is presented. The model is a metalanguage for defining task-action grammars (TAG): generative grammars that rewrite simple tasks into action specifications. Important features of the model are (a) Identification of the "simple-tasks" that users can perform routinely and which require no control structure; (b) Representation of simple-tasks by collections of semantic components reflecting a categorization of the task world; (c) Marking of tokens in rewrite rules with the semantic features of the task world to supply selection restrictions on the rewriting of simple-tasks into action specifications. This device allows the representation of family resemblances between individual task-action mappings. Simple complexity metrics over task-action grammars make predictions about the relative learnability of different task language designs. Some empirical support for these predictions is derived from the existing empirical literature on command language learning, and from two unreported experiments. Task-action grammars also provide designers with an analytic tool for exposing the configural properties of task languages.”
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» 1984 «
Green, T. R. G., Payne, Stephen J., Gilmore, David J. and Mepham, M. (1984): Predicting Expert Slips. In: Shackel, Brian (ed.) INTERACT 84 - 1st IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 4-7, 1984, London, UK. pp. 519-525.
Payne, Stephen J. (1984): Task-Action Grammars. In: Shackel, Brian (ed.) INTERACT 84 - 1st IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 4-7, 1984, London, UK. pp. 527-532.
Green, T. R. G. and Payne, Stephen J. (1984): Organization and Learnability in Computer Languages. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21 (1) pp. 7-18
“A number of "guiding principles" have been put forward for the design of easily-learnt languages, but little attention has been given to the overall structure or organization of the language. We propose a new principle, that of consistency between language rules, and show that this "organizing" principle is strongly related to the concepts of hyper-rules and meta-rules in van Wijngaarden's two-level grammar. We report an experiment comparing four separate namesets for a subset of a word-processing language, which demonstrates that the organization of the lexical rules is more important than the match between any one command and its name; performance with the nameset in which two conflicting organization principles were at work was much poorer than with consistent namesets whose organizing principles could readily be perceived by subjects.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Sime, M. E. and Green, T. R. G. (1984): Perceptual Structure Cueing in a Simple Command Language. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21 (1) pp. 19-29
“Computer languages are special cases of information displays. Successful information display, presented here as a mapping between the internal structure of the information and its external representation, enables the reader to use perceptual features as cues to the internal structure. Such "perceptual parsing" is notably difficult or impossible in many command languages: instead, the structure of their inscrutable commands defies quick analysis. Taking a miniature context-oriented editor as a demonstration system, we show that an extremely simple and purely "surface" change to the syntax, namely putting operation codes in upper case to distinguish them from literals, produces a large decrease in error frequencies in each of the three experimental tasks. We conclude that designers should pay close attention to making the command structure easily perceived.”
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Morrison, David L., Green, T. R. G., Shaw, A. C. and Payne, Stephen J. (1984): Speech-Controlled Text-Editing: Effects of Input Modality and of Command Structure. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21 (1) pp. 49-63
“Performance measures and satisfaction ratings were obtained from skilled typists and from non-typists using two different designs of editor, one requiring more commands but simpler ("short transactions") the other needing fewer commands but more complex ("long transactions"). Each subject used the same editor in two versions, one with all input from the keyboard, the other with spoken commands but typed parameter strings. The results indicate that short transactions were preferred, although they were not always most error-free. Speech input was consistently rated lower than keyboard by typists; non-typists initially preferred speech but swung to preferring keyboard. Although the dislike of speech may have been due to the limited hardware, subjects' comments suggested that switching modality during a command was inherently disruptive.”
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» 1983 «
Payne, Stephen J. and Green, Thomas (1983): The User's Perception of the Interaction Language: A Two-Level Model. In: Smith, Raoul N., Pew, Richard W. and Janda, Ann (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 83 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conferenc December 12-15, 1983, Boston, Massachusetts, United States. pp. 202-206.
“Users perceive consistency and inconsistency in syntax, and family resemblances among syntactic constructions. These factors are not captured in conventional BNF-like grammars. We argue that a generalised form of a two-level grammar is a better model of the user's perceptions, and show how the model relates to current psychological notions of organisation in recall and language learning. The model provides a unified interpretation of many previous results in HCI: we analyse here findings by Reisner (1981) and Barnard et al. (1981). Two preliminary experimental tests supporting the model are described.”
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Green, T. R. G., Payne, Stephen J., Morrison, David L. and Shaw, A. (1983): Friendly Interfacing to Simple Speech Recognizers. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 2 (1) pp. 23-38
“We describe improvements to the recognition performance of a simple commercial speech recognizer. Topics include the selection of acoustically distinct words; a method of 'training' (storing utterances for later use as templates) which mimics the real task, and therefore reduces the difference in diction between training and task; the representation of variability in diction by storing repeated examples of each utterance separately, instead of using a simple statistical average; and the construction of an adaptive algorithm which updates its templates at appropriate moments. The results of empirical investigations with the adaptive algorithm show a very considerable improvement in performance. We argue that the development of speech recognizers has given the hardware undue attention, and that a rigorous attack on adaptive recognition, treated as a problem in control theory, would lead to a sophisticated interface to complement sophisticated hardware. The system we describe has been successfully used in an experimental voice-operated text-editing system (Morrison and Green 1982).”
Copyrights may apply
Payne, Stephen J. (1983): "Language as a Cognitive Process. Volume 1: Syntax," by Terry Winograd. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 2 (4) pp. 365-366
Green, T. R. G., Payne, Stephen J. and Veer, Gerrit van der (eds.) (1983): The Psychology of Computer Use. London, England, Academic Press
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» 1982 «
Payne, Stephen J. (1982): "Man-Machine Dialogue Design," by A. L. Kidd. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 1 (4) p. 421
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Mar 21st, 2010
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