Stephen A. Brewster
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"Stephen Brewster"
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Publications by Stephen A. Brewster (bibliography)
» 2009 «
Hoggan, Eve, Crossan, Andrew, Brewster, Stephen A. and Kaaresoja, Topi (2009): Audio or tactile feedback: which modality when?. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 2253-2256. Available online
“When designing interfaces for mobile devices it is important to take into account the variety of contexts of use. We present a study that examines how changing noise and disturbance in the environment affects user performance in a touchscreen typing task with the interface being presented through visual only, visual and tactile, or visual and audio feedback. The aim of the study is to show at what exact environmental levels audio or tactile feedback become ineffective. The results show significant decreases in performance for audio feedback at levels of 94dB and above as well as decreases in performance for tactile feedback at vibration levels of 9.18g/s. These results suggest that at these levels, feedback should be presented by a different modality. These findings will allow designers to take advantage of sensor enabled mobile devices to adapt the provided feedback to the user's current context.”
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Vazquez-Alvarez, Yolanda and Brewster, Stephen A. (2009): Investigating background & foreground interactions using spatial audio cues. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 3823-3828. Available online
“Audio is a key feedback mechanism in eyes-free and mobile computer interaction. Spatial audio, which allows us to localize a sound source in a 3D space, can offer a means of altering focus between audio streams as well as increasing the richness and differentiation of audio cues. However, the implementation of spatial audio on mobile phones is a recent development. Therefore, a calibration of this new technology is a requirement for any further spatial audio research. In this paper we report an evaluation of the spatial audio capabilities supported on a Nokia N95 8GB mobile phone. Participants were able to significantly discriminate between five audio sources on the frontal horizontal plane. Results also highlighted possible subject variation caused by earedness and handedness. We then introduce the concept of audio minimization and describe work in progress using the Nokia N95's 3D audio capability to implement and evaluate audio minimization in an eyes-free mobile environment.”
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Pietrzak, Thomas, Crossan, Andrew, Brewster, Stephen A., Martin, Benoît and Pecci, Isabelle (2009): Exploring Geometric Shapes with Touch. In: Gross, T. (ed.) Interact 2009 2009, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 145-148.
“We propose a new technique to help users to explore geometric shapes without vision. This technique is based on a guidance using directional cues with a pin array. This is an alternative to the usual technique that consists of raising the pins corresponding to dark pixels around the cursor. In this paper we compare the exploration of geometric shapes with our new technique in unimanual and bimanual conditions. The users made fewer errors in unimanual condition than in bimanual condition. However they did not explore the shapes more quickly and there was no difference in confidence in their answer.”
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Pietrzak, Thomas, Crossan, Andrew, Brewster, Stephen A., Martin, Benoît and Pecci, Isabelle (2009): Exploration de formes géométriques par le toucher. In: 21th French-speaking conference on Human-computer interaction IHM 2009 October 13-16, 2009, Grenoble, France. .
“We propose a new technique to help people to explore geometric shapes without vision. This technique is based on a guidance using directional cues with a pin array. This is an alternative to the usual technique that consists of raising the pins corresponding to dark pixels around the cursor. In this paper we compare the exploration of geometric shapes with our new technique in unimanual and bimanual conditions. According to our results, the users made few errors in both conditions. Moreover the results show an equivalence for both techniques in answer time and users' confidence in their answer.”
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» 2008 «
Hoggan, Eve, Brewster, Stephen A. and Johnston, Jody (2008): Investigating the effectiveness of tactile feedback for mobile touchscreens. In: Proceeding of the Twenty-Sixth Annual SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008, Florence, Italy. pp. 1573-1582. Available online
“This paper presents a study of finger-based text entry for mobile devices with touchscreens. Many devices are now coming to market that have no physical keyboards (the Apple iPhone being a very popular example). Touchscreen keyboards lack any tactile feedback and this may cause problems for entering text and phone numbers. We ran an experiment to compare devices with a physical keyboard, a standard touchscreen and a touchscreen with tactile feedback added. We tested this in both static and mobile environments. The results showed that the addition of tactile feedback to the touchscreen significantly improved finger-based text entry, bringing it close to the performance of a real physical keyboard. A second experiment showed that higher specification tactile actuators could improve performance even further. The results suggest that manufacturers should use tactile feedback in their touchscreen devices to regain some of the feeling lost when interacting on a touchscreen with a finger.”
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Plimmer, Beryl, Crossan, Andrew, Brewster, Stephen A. and Blagojevic, Rachel (2008): Multimodal collaborative handwriting training for visually-impaired people. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 393-402. Available online
“"McSig" is a multimodal teaching and learning environment for visually-impaired students to learn character shapes, handwriting and signatures collaboratively with their teachers. It combines haptic and audio output to realize the teacher's pen input in parallel non-visual modalities. McSig is intended for teaching visually-impaired children how to handwrite characters (and from that signatures), something that is very difficult without visual feedback. We conducted an evaluation with eight visually-impaired children with a pretest to assess their current skills with a set of character shapes, a training phase using McSig and then a post-test of the same character shapes to see if there were any improvements. The children could all use McSig and we saw significant improvements in the character shapes drawn, particularly by the completely blind children (many of whom could draw almost none of the characters before the test). In particular, the blind participants all expressed enjoyment and excitement about the system and using a computer to learn to handwrite.”
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Hoggan, Eve, Brewster, Stephen A. and Johnston, Jody (2008): Investigating the effectiveness of tactile feedback for mobile touchscreens. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 1573-1582. Available online
“This paper presents a study of finger-based text entry for mobile devices with touchscreens. Many devices are now coming to market that have no physical keyboards (the Apple iPhone being a very popular example). Touchscreen keyboards lack any tactile feedback and this may cause problems for entering text and phone numbers. We ran an experiment to compare devices with a physical keyboard, a standard touchscreen and a touchscreen with tactile feedback added. We tested this in both static and mobile environments. The results showed that the addition of tactile feedback to the touchscreen significantly improved finger-based text entry, bringing it close to the performance of a real physical keyboard. A second experiment showed that higher specification tactile actuators could improve performance even further. The results suggest that manufacturers should use tactile feedback in their touchscreen devices to regain some of the feeling lost when interacting on a touchscreen with a finger.”
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Brewster, Stephen A. and Johnston, Jody (2008): Multimodal interfaces for camera phones. In: Hofte, G. Henri ter, Mulder, Ingrid and Ruyter, Boris E. R. de (eds.) Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2008 September 2-5, 2008, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. pp. 387-390. Available online
Hall, Malcolm, Hoggan, Eve E. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2008): T-Bars: towards tactile user interfaces for mobile touchscreens. In: Hofte, G. Henri ter, Mulder, Ingrid and Ruyter, Boris E. R. de (eds.) Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2008 September 2-5, 2008, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. pp. 411-414. Available online
Crossan, Andrew, Williamson, John, Brewster, Stephen A. and Murray-Smith, Roderick (2008): Wrist rotation for interaction in mobile contexts. In: Hofte, G. Henri ter, Mulder, Ingrid and Ruyter, Boris E. R. de (eds.) Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2008 September 2-5, 2008, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. pp. 435-438. Available online
Hoggan, Eve E., Kaaresoja, Topi, Laitinen, Pauli and Brewster, Stephen A. (2008): Crossmodal congruence: the look, feel and sound of touchscreen widgets. In: Digalakis, Vassilios, Potamianos, Alexandros, Turk, Matthew, Pieraccini, Roberto and Ivanov, Yuri (eds.) Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces - ICMI 2008 October 20-22, 2008, Chania, Crete, Greece. pp. 157-164. Available online
McGookin, David, Brewster, Stephen A. and Jiang, WeiWei (2008): Investigating touchscreen accessibility for people with visual impairments. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2008. pp. 298-307. Available online
“Touchscreen computing devices such as the iPhone are becoming more common. However this technology is largely inaccessible to people with visual impairments. We present the results of a requirements capture study that illustrates the problems with touchscreen accessibility, and the choices visually impaired people make when choosing assistive technology. We investigate ways of overcoming touchscreen accessibility problems by comparing a raised paper overlay touchscreen based MP3 player, with a touchscreen gesture based player. Twelve blindfolded participants, and one visually impaired person, were able to operate both players, though there were problems with short impact related operations in the gesture player. From our results we provide guidelines for future designers, to help them exploit the potential of touchscreen technology for visually impaired people.”
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Crossan, Andrew and Brewster, Stephen A. (2008): Multimodal Trajectory Playback for Teaching Shape Information and Trajectories to Visually Impaired Computer Users. In ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, 1 (2) p. 12
“There are difficulties in presenting nontextual or dynamic information to blind or visually impaired users through computers. This article examines the potential of haptic and auditory trajectory playback as a method of teaching shapes and gestures to visually impaired people. Two studies are described which test the success of teaching simple shapes. The first study examines haptic trajectory playback alone, played through a force-feedback device, and compares performance of visually impaired users with sighted users. It demonstrates that the task is significantly harder for visually impaired users. The second study builds on these results, combining force-feedback with audio to teach visually impaired users to recreate shapes. The results suggest that users performed significantly better when presented with multimodal haptic and audio playback of the shape, rather than haptic only. Finally, an initial test of these ideas in an application context is described, with sighted participants describing drawings to visually impaired participants through touch and sound. This study demonstrates in what situations trajectory playback can prove a useful role in a collaborative setting.”
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Oulasvirta, Antti and Brewster, Stephen A. (2008): Mobile human-computer interaction. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 20 (12) pp. 833-837
Pirhonen, Antti and Brewster, Stephen A. (eds.) HAID 2008 - Haptic and Audio Interaction Design - Third International Workshop September 15-16, 2008, Jyväskylä, Finland.
» 2007 «
Brewster, Stephen A., Chohan, Faraz and Brown, Lorna (2007): Tactile feedback for mobile interactions. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2007 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2007. pp. 159-162. Available online
“We present a study investigating the use of vibrotactile feedback for touchscreen keyboards on PDAs. Such keyboards are hard to use when mobile as keys are very small. We conducted a laboratory study comparing standard buttons to ones with tactile feedback added. Results showed that with tactile feedback users entered significantly more text, made fewer errors and corrected more of the errors they did make. We ran the study again with users seated on an underground train to see if the positive effects transferred to realistic use. There were fewer beneficial effects, with only the number of errors corrected significantly improved by the tactile feedback. However, we found strong subjective feedback in favour of the tactile display. The results suggest that tactile feedback has a key role to play in improving interactions with touch screens.”
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Hoggan, Eve E. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2007): Designing audio and tactile crossmodal icons for mobile devices. In: Massaro, Dominic W., Takeda, Kazuya, Roy, Deb and Potamianos, Alexandros (eds.) Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces - ICMI 2007 November 12-15, 2007, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. pp. 162-169. Available online
Oakley, Ian and Brewster, Stephen A. (eds.) HAID 2007 - Haptic and Audio Interaction Design - Second International Workshop November 29-30, 2007, Seoul, South Korea.
Hoggan, Eve E., Anwar, Sohail and Brewster, Stephen A. (2007): Mobile Multi-actuator Tactile Displays. In: Oakley, Ian and Brewster, Stephen A. (eds.) HAID 2007 - Haptic and Audio Interaction Design - Second International Workshop November 29-30, 2007, Seoul, South Korea. pp. 22-33. Available online
McGookin, David K., Gibbs, Maya, Nivala, Annu-Maaria and Brewster, Stephen A. (2007): Initial Development of a PDA Mobility Aid for Visually Impaired People. In: Baranauskas, Maria Cecília Calani, Palanque, Philippe A., Abascal, Julio and Barbosa, Simone Diniz Junqueira (eds.) DEGAS 2007 - Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Design and Evaluation of e-Government Applications and Services September 11th, 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. pp. 665-668. Available online
Kildal, Johan and Brewster, Stephen A. (2007): EMA-Tactons: Vibrotactile External Memory Aids in an Auditory Display. In: Baranauskas, Maria Cecília Calani, Palanque, Philippe A., Abascal, Julio and Barbosa, Simone Diniz Junqueira (eds.) DEGAS 2007 - Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Design and Evaluation of e-Government Applications and Services September 11th, 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. pp. 71-84. Available online
» 2006 «
Marentakis, Georgios N. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Effects of feedback, mobility and index of difficulty on deictic spatial audio target acquisition in the horizontal plane. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2006. pp. 359-368. Available online
“We present the results of an empirical study investigating the effect of feedback, mobility and index of difficulty on a deictic spatial audio target acquisition task in the horizontal plane in front of a user. With audio feedback, spatial audio display elements are found to enable usable deictic interaction that can be described using Fitts law. Feedback does not affect perceived workload or preferred walking speed compared to interaction without feedback. Mobility is found to degrade interaction speed and accuracy by 20%. Participants were able to perform deictic spatial audio target acquisition when mobile while walking at 73% of their preferred walking speed. The proposed feedback design is examined in detail and the effects of variable target widths are quantified. Deictic interaction with a spatial audio display is found to be a feasible solution for future interface designs.”
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Brewster, Stephen A., McGookin, David and Miller, Christopher (2006): Olfoto: designing a smell-based interaction. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2006. pp. 653-662. Available online
“We present a study into the use of smell for searching digital photo collections. Many people now have large photo libraries on their computers and effective search tools are needed. Smell has a strong link to memory and emotion so may be a good way to cue recall when searching. Our study compared text and smell based tagging. For the first stage we generated a set of smell and tag names from user descriptions of photos, participants then used these to tag photos, returning two weeks later to answer questions on their photos. Results showed that participants could tag effectively with text labels, as this is a common and familiar task. Performance with smells was lower but participants performed significantly above chance, with some participants using smells well. This suggests that smell has potential. Results also showed that some smells were consistently identified and useful, but some were not and highlighted issues with smell delivery devices. We also discuss some practical issues of using smell for interaction.”
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Wall, Steven and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Feeling what you hear: tactile feedback for navigation of audio graphs. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2006. pp. 1123-1132. Available online
“Access to digitally stored numerical data is currently very limited for sight impaired people. Graphs and visualizations are often used to analyze relationships between numerical data, but the current methods of accessing them are highly visually mediated. Representing data using audio feedback is a common method of making data more accessible, but methods of navigating and accessing the data are often serial in nature and laborious. Tactile or haptic displays could be used to provide additional feedback to support a point-and-click type interaction for the visually impaired. A requirements capture conducted with sight impaired computer users produced a review of current accessibility technologies, and guidelines were extracted for using tactile feedback to aid navigation. The results of a qualitative evaluation with a prototype interface are also presented. Providing an absolute position input device and tactile feedback allowed the users to explore the graph using tactile and proprioceptive cues in a manner analogous to point-and-click techniques.”
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Wall, Steven A. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Tac-tiles: multimodal pie charts for visually impaired users. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2006. pp. 9-18. Available online
“Tac-tiles is an accessible interface that allows visually impaired users to browse graphical information using tactile and audio feedback. The system uses a graphics tablet which is augmented with a tangible overlay tile to guide user exploration. Dynamic feedback is provided by a tactile pin-array at the fingertips, and through speech/non-speech audio cues. In designing the system, we seek to preserve the affordances and metaphors of traditional, low-tech teaching media for the blind, and combine this with the benefits of a digital representation. Traditional tangible media allow rapid, non-sequential access to data, promote easy and unambiguous access to resources such as axes and gridlines, allow the use of external memory, and preserve visual conventions, thus promoting collaboration with sighted colleagues. A prototype system was evaluated with visually impaired users, and recommendations for multimodal design were derived.”
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McGookin, David K. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): SoundBar: exploiting multiple views in multimodal graph browsing. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2006. pp. 145-154. Available online
“In this paper we discuss why access to mathematical graphs is problematic for visually impaired people. By a review of graph understanding theory and interviews with visually impaired users, we explain why current non-visual representations are unlikely to provide effective access to graphs. We propose the use of multiple views of the graph, each providing quick access to specific information as a way to improve graph usability. We then introduce a specific multiple view system to improve access to bar graphs called SoundBar which provides an additional quick audio overview of the graph. An evaluation of SoundBar revealed that additional views significantly increased accuracy and reduced time taken in a question answering task.”
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Hoggan, Eve and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Crossmodal spatial location: initial experiments. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2006. pp. 469-472. Available online
“This paper describes an alternative form of interaction for mobile devices using crossmodal output. The aim of our work is to investigate the equivalence of audio and tactile displays so that the same messages can be presented in one form or another. Initial experiments show that spatial location can be perceived as equivalent in both the auditory and tactile modalities Results show that participants are able to map presented 3D audio positions to tactile body positions on the waist most effectively when mobile and that there are significantly more errors made when using the ankle or wrist. This paper compares the results from both a static and mobile experiment on crossmodal spatial location and outlines the most effective ways to use this crossmodal output in a mobile context.”
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Brown, Lorna M., Brewster, Stephen A. and Purchase, Helen C. (2006): Multidimensional tactons for non-visual information presentation in mobile devices. In: Proceedings of 8th conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services 2006. pp. 231-238. Available online
“Tactons are structured vibrotactile messages which can be used for non-visual information presentation when visual displays are limited, unavailable or inappropriate, such as in mobile phones and other mobile devices. Little is yet known about how to design them effectively. Previous studies have investigated the perception of Tactons which encode two dimensions of information using two different vibrotactile parameters (rhythm and roughness) and found recognition rates of around 70. When more dimensions of information are required it may be necessary to extend the parameter-space of these Tactons. Therefore this study investigates recognition rates for Tactons which encode a third dimension of information using spatial location. The results show that identification rate for three-parameter Tactons is just 48, but that this can be increased to 81 by reducing the number of values of one of the parameters. These results will aid designers to select suitable Tactons for use when designing mobile displays.”
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McGookin, D. K. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Graph Builder: Constructing Non-visual Visualizations. In: Proceedings of the HCI06 Conference on People and Computers XX 2006. pp. 263-278.
Brown, Lorna M., Brewster, Stephen A. and Purchase, Helen C. (2006): Multidimensional tactons for non-visual information presentation in mobile devices. In: Nieminen, Marko and Röykkee, Mika (eds.) Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2006 September 12-15, 2006, Helsinki, Finland. pp. 231-238. Available online
McGookin, David K. and Brewster, Stephen A. (eds.) HAID 2006 - Haptic and Audio Interaction Design - First International Workshop August 31 - September 1, 2006, Glasgow, UK.
Hoggan, Eve E. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2006): Crossmodal Interaction with Mobile Devices. In: VL-HCC 2006 - IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing 4-8 September, 2006, Brighton, UK. pp. 234-235. Available online
» 2005 «
Crossan, Andrew, Murray-Smith, Roderick, Brewster, Stephen A., Kelly, James and Musizza, Bojan (2005): Gait phase effects in mobile interaction. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 1312-1315. Available online
“One problem evaluating mobile and wearable devices is that they are used in mobile settings, making it hard to collect usability data. We present a study of tap-based selection of on-screen targets whilst walking and sitting, using a PocketPC instrumented with an accelerometer to collect information about user activity at the time of each tap. From these data the user's gait can be derived, and this is then used to investigate preferred tapping behaviour relative to gait phase, and associated tap accuracy. Results showed that users were more accurate sitting than walking. When walking there were phase regions with significantly increased tap likelihood, and these regions had significantly lower error rates, and lower error variability. This work represents an example of accelerometer-instrumented mobile usability analysis, and the results give a quantitative understanding of the detailed interactions taking place when on the move, allowing us to develop better mobile interfaces.”
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Marentakis, Georgios N. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2005): Effects of reproduction equipment on interaction with a spatial audio interface. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 1625-1628. Available online
“Spatial audio displays have been criticized because the use of headphones may isolate users from their real world audio environment. In this paper we study the effects of three types of audio reproduction equipment (standard headphones, bone-conductance headphones and monaural presentation using a single earphone) on time and accuracy during interaction with a deictic spatial audio display. Participants selected a target sound emitting from one of four different locations in the presence of distracters whilst wearing the different types of headphones. Target locations were marked with audio feedback. No significant differences were found for time and accuracy ratings between bone conductance and standard headphones. Monaural reproduction significantly slowed interaction. The results show that alternative reproduction equipment can be used to overcome user isolation from the natural audio environment.”
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Wall, Steven and Brewster, Stephen A. (2005): Hands-on haptics: exploring non-visual visualization using the sense of touch. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 2140-2141. Available online
Brewster, Stephen A. and King, A. (2005): An Investigation into the Use of Tactons to Present Progress Information. In: Proceedings of IFIP INTERACT05: Human-Computer Interaction 2005. pp. 6-17. Available online
“This paper presents an initial investigation into the use of Tactons, or tactile icons, to present progress information in desktop human-computer interfaces. Progress bars are very common in a wide range of interfaces but have problems. For example, they must compete for screen space and visual attention with other visual tasks such as document editing or web browsing. To address these problems we created a tactile progress indicator, encoding progress information into a series of vibrotactile cues. An experiment comparing the tactile progress indicator to a standard visual one showed a significant improvement in performance and an overall preference for the tactile display. These results suggest that a tactile display is a good way to present such information and this has many potential applications from computer desktops to mobile telephones.”
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Darroch, I., Goodman, J., Brewster, Stephen A. and Gray, P. (2005): The Effect of Age and Font Size on Reading Text on Handheld Computers. In: Proceedings of IFIP INTERACT05: Human-Computer Interaction 2005. pp. 253-266. Available online
“Though there have been many studies of computer based text reading, only a few have considered the small screens of handheld computers. This paper presents an investigation into the effect of varying font size between 2 and 16 point on reading text on a handheld computer. By using both older and younger participants the possible effects of age were examined. Reading speed and accuracy were measured and subjective views of participants recorded. Objective results showed that there was little difference in reading performance above 6 point, but subjective comments from participants showed a preference for sizes in the middle range. We therefore suggest, for reading tasks, that designers of interfaces for mobile computers provide fonts in the range of 8-12 point to maximize readability for the widest range of users.”
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Marentakis, Georgios and Brewster, Stephen A. (2005): A comparison of feedback cues for enhancing pointing efficiency in interaction with spatial audio displays. In: Proceedings of 7th conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services 2005. pp. 55-62. Available online
“An empirical study that compared six different feedback cue types to enhance pointing efficiency in deictic spatial audio displays is presented. Participants were asked to select a sound using a physical pointing gesture, with the help of a loudness cue, a timbre cue and an orientation update cue as well as with combinations of these cues. Display content was varied systematically to investigate the effect of increasing display population. Speed, accuracy and throughput ratings are provided as well as effective target widths that allow for minimal error rates. The results showed direct pointing to be the most efficient interaction technique; however large effective target widths reduce the applicability of this technique. Movement-coupled cues were found to significantly reduce display element size, but resulted in slower interaction and were affected by display content due to the requirement of continuous target attainment. The results show that, with appropriate design, it is possible to overcome interaction uncertainty and provide solutions that are effective in mobile human computer interaction.”
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Marentakis, Georgios N. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2005): A comparison of feedback cues for enhancing pointing efficiency in interaction with spatial audio displays. In: Tscheligi, Manfred, Bernhaupt, Regina and Mihalic, Kristijan (eds.) Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2005 September 19-22, 2005, Salzburg, Austria. pp. 55-62. Available online
Baillie, Sarah, Brewster, Stephen A., Hall, Cordelia V. and O'Donnell, John T. (2005): Motion Space Reduction in a Haptic Model of Violin and Viola Bowin. In: WHC 2005 - World Haptics Conference 18-20 March, 2005, Pisa, Italy. pp. 525-526. Available online
Brewster, Stephen A. and King, Alison (2005): The Design and Evaluation of a Vibrotactile Progress Bar. In: WHC 2005 - World Haptics Conference 18-20 March, 2005, Pisa, Italy. pp. 499-500. Available online
Brown, Lorna M., Brewster, Stephen A. and Purchase, Helen C. (2005): A First Investigation into the Effectiveness of Tactons. In: WHC 2005 - World Haptics Conference 18-20 March, 2005, Pisa, Italy. pp. 167-176. Available online
» 2004 «
Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Marc (2004): Mobile Human Computer Interaction. Springer
Zajicek, Mary and Brewster, Stephen A. (2004): Design principles to support older adults. In Universal Access in the Information Society, 3 (2) pp. 111-113
Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Mark (eds.) Mobile HCI 2004 September 13-16, 2004, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Mark D. (eds.) Mobile Human-Computer Interaction - Mobile HCI 2004 - 6th International Symposium September 13-16, 2004, Glasgow, UK.
Goodman, Joy, Gray, Philip D., Khammampad, Kartik and Brewster, Stephen A. (2004): Using Landmarks to Support Older People in Navigation. In: Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Mark D. (eds.) Mobile Human-Computer Interaction - Mobile HCI 2004 - 6th International Symposium September 13-16, 2004, Glasgow, UK. pp. 38-48. Available online
Marentakis, Georgios N. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2004): A Study on Gestural Interaction with a 3D Audio Display. In: Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Mark D. (eds.) Mobile Human-Computer Interaction - Mobile HCI 2004 - 6th International Symposium September 13-16, 2004, Glasgow, UK. pp. 180-191. Available online
Brewster, Stephen A. and Brown, Lorna M. (2004): Tactons: Structured Tactile Messages for Non-Visual Information Display. In: Cockburn, Andy (ed.) AUIC2004 - User Interfaces 2004 - Fifth Australasian User Interface Conference 18-22 January, 2004, Dunedin, New Zealand. pp. 15-23. Available online
» 2003 «
Brewster, Stephen A., Lumsden, Joanna, Bell, Marek, Hall, Malcolm and Tasker, Stuart (2003): Multimodal 'eyes-free' interaction techniques for wearable devices. In: Cockton, Gilbert and Korhonen, Panu (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2003 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 5-10, 2003, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA. pp. 473-480.
Yu, Wai and Brewster, Stephen A. (2003): Evaluation of multimodal graphs for blind people. In Universal Access in the Information Society, 2 (2) pp. 105-124
“This paper introduces the development of a multimodal data visualisation system and its evaluations. This system is designed to improve blind and visually impaired peoples access to graphs and tables. Force feedback, synthesized speech and non-speech audio are utilised to present graphical data to blind people. Through the combination of haptic and audio representations, users can explore virtual graphs rendered by a computer. Various types of graphs and tables have been implemented, and a three-stage evaluation has been conducted. The experimental results have proven the usability of the system and the benefits of the multimodal approach. The paper presents the details of the development and experimental findings, as well as the changes of role of haptics in the evaluation.”
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Yu, Wai, Kangas, Katri and Brewster, Stephen A. (2003): Web-Based Haptic Applications for Blind People to Create Virtual Graph. In: HAPTICS 2003 - 11th International Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems 22-23 March, 2003, Los Angeles, CA, USA. pp. 318-325. Available online
» 2002 «
Pirhonen, Antti, Brewster, Stephen A. and Holguin, Christopher (2002): Gestural and audio metaphors as a means of control for mobile devices. In: Terveen, Loren (ed.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2002 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 20-25, 2002, Minneapolis, Minnesota. pp. 291-298.
Yu, Wai and Brewster, Stephen A. (2002): Multimodal virtual reality versus printed medium in visualization for blind people. In: Fifth Annual ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies 2002. pp. 57-64. Available online
“In this paper, we describe a study comparing the strengths of a multimodal Virtual Reality (VR) interface against traditional tactile diagrams in conveying information to visually impaired and blind people. The multimodal VR interface consists of a force feedback device (SensAble PHANTOM), synthesized speech and non-speech audio. Potential advantages of the VR technology are well known however its real usability in comparison with the conventional paper-based medium is seldom investigated. We have addressed this issue in our evaluation. The experimental results show benefits from using the multimodal approach in terms of more accurate information about the graphs obtained by users.”
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Oakley, I., Adams, A., Brewster, Stephen A. and Gray, P. (2002): Guidelines for the Design of Haptic Widgets. In: Proceedings of the HCI02 Conference on People and Computers XVI 2002. pp. 195-212.
Crossan, A., Brewster, Stephen A., Reid, S. and Mellor, D. (2002): Multi-session VR Medical Training: The HOPS Simulator. In: Proceedings of the HCI02 Conference on People and Computers XVI 2002. pp. 213-226.
Dunlop, Mark D. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2002): editorial: The Challenge of Mobile Devices for Human Computer Interaction. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 6 (4) pp. 235-236
Brewster, Stephen A. (2002): Overcoming the Lack of Screen Space on Mobile Computers. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 6 (3) pp. 188-205
Yu, Wai and Brewster, Stephen A. (2002): Comparing Two Haptic Interfaces for Multimodal Graph Rendering. In: HAPTICS 2002 - Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems 2002 2002. pp. 3-9. Available online
Ramloll, Rameshsharma and Brewster, Stephen A. (2002): An Environment for Studying the Impact of Spatialising Sonified Graphs on Data Comprehension. In: IV 2002 2002. pp. 167-174. Available online
» 2001 «
Brewster, Stephen A. and Murray-Smith, Roderick (eds.) (2001): Haptic human-computer interaction : first international workshop, Glasgow, UK, August 31-September 1, 2000. Springer-Verlag
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Ramloll, R., Brewster, Stephen A., Yu, W. and Riedel, B. (2001): Using Non-speech Sounds to Improve Access to 2D Tabular Numerical Information for Visually Impaired Users. In: Proceedings of the HCI01 Conference on People and Computers XV 2001. pp. 515-530.
Walker, A., Brewster, Stephen A., McGookin, D. and Ng, A. (2001): Diary in the Sky: A Spatial Audio Display for a Mobile Calendar. In: Proceedings of the HCI01 Conference on People and Computers XV 2001. pp. 531-540.
» 2000 «
Oakley, Ian, McGee, Marilyn Rose, Brewster, Stephen A. and Gray, Philip (2000): Putting the Feel in 'Look and Feel'. In: Turner, Thea, Szwillus, Gerd, Czerwinski, Mary, Peterno, Fabio and Pemberton, Steven (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2000 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 1-6, 2000, The Hague, The Netherlands. pp. 415-422. Available online
“Haptic devices are now commercially available and thus touch has become a potentially realistic solution to a variety of interaction design challenges. We report on an investigation of the use of touch as a way of reducing visual overload in the conventional desktop. In a two-phase study, we investigated the use of the PHANTOM haptic device as a means of interacting with a conventional graphical user interface. The first experiment compared the effects of four different haptic augmentations on usability in a simple targeting task. The second experiment involved a more ecologically-oriented searching and scrolling task. Results indicated that the haptic effects did not improve users performance in terms of task completion time. However, the number of errors made was significantly reduced. Subjective workload measures showed that participants perceived many aspects of workload as significantly less with haptics. The results are described and the implications for the use of haptics in user interface design are discussed.”
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Ramloll, Rameshsharma, Yu, Wai, Brewster, Stephen A., Riedel, Beate, Burton, Mike and Dimigen, Gisela (2000): Constructing Sonified Haptic Line Graphs for the Blind Student: First Steps. In: Fourth Annual ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies 2000. pp. 17-25. Available online
“Line graphs stand as an established information visualisation and analysis technique taught at various levels of difficulty according to standard Mathematics curricula. It has been argued that blind individuals cannot use line graphs as a visualisation and analytic tool because they currently primarily exist in the visual medium. The research described in this paper aims at making line graphs accessible to blind students through auditory and haptic media. We describe (1) our design space for representing line graphs, (2) the technology we use to develop our prototypes and (3) the insights from our preliminary work.”
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Crease, M., Brewster, Stephen A. and Gray, P. (2000): Caring, Sharing Widgets: A Toolkit of Sensitive Widgets. In: Proceedings of the HCI00 Conference on People and Computers XIV 2000. pp. 257-270.
Brewster, Stephen A. and Dunlop, Mark D. (2000): editoral: Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 4 (2)
Brewster, Stephen A. and Murray, Robin (2000): Presenting Dynamic Information on Mobile Computers. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 4 (4) pp. 209-212
Walker, Ashely and Brewster, Stephen A. (2000): Spatial Audio in Small Screen Device Displays. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 4 (2)
Crease, Murray, Gray, Philip D. and Brewster, Stephen A. (2000): A Toolkit of Mechanism and Context Independent Widgets. In: DSV-IS 2000 2000. pp. 121-133. Available online
» 1999 «
Brewster, Stephen A. and Crease, Murray G. (1999): Correcting Menu Usability Problems with Sound. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 18 (3) pp. 165-177
“Future human-computer interfaces will use more than just graphical output to display information. In this paper we suggest that sound and graphics together can be used to improve interaction. We describe an experiment to improve the usability of standard graphical menus by the addition of sound. One common difficulty is slipping off a menu item by mistake when trying to select it. One of the causes of this is insufficient feedback. We designed and experimentally evaluated a new set of menus with much more salient audio feedback to solve this problem. The results from the experiment showed a significant reduction in the subjective effort required to use the new sonically-enhanced menus along with significantly reduced error recovery times. A significantly larger number of errors were also corrected with sound.”
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Brewster, Stephen A. (1999): Sound in the interface to a mobile computer. In: 1999. pp. 43-47.
» 1998 «
Brewster, Stephen A. (1998): The Design of Sonically-Enhanced Widgets. In Interacting with Computers, 11 (2) pp. 211-235
“This paper describes the design of user-interface widgets that include non-speech sound. Previous research has shown that the addition of sound can improve the usability of human-computer interfaces. However, there is little research to show where the best places are to add sound to improve usability. The approach described here is to integrate sound into widgets, the basic components of the human-computer interface. An overall structure for the integration of sound is presented. There are many problems with current graphical widgets and many of these are difficult to correct by using more graphics. This paper presents many of the standard graphical widgets and describes how sound can be added. It describes in detail usability problems with the widgets and then the non-speech sounds to overcome them. The non-speech sounds used are earcons. These sonically-enhanced widgets allow designers who are not sound experts to create interfaces that effectively improve usability and have coherent and consistent sounds.”
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Brewster, Stephen A. (1998): Using Earcons to Improve the Usability of a Graphics Package. In: Johnson, Hilary, Nigay, Laurence and Roast, C. R. (eds.) Proceedings of the Thirteenth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XIII August 1-4, 1998, Sheffield, UK. pp. 287-302.
“This paper describes how non-speech sounds can be used to improve the usability of a graphics package. Sound was specifically used to aid problems with tool palettes and finding the current mouse coordinates when drawing. Tool palettes have usability problems because users need to see the information they present but they are often outside the area of visual focus. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of adding sound to tool palettes. Earcons were used to indicate the current tool and when tool changes occurred. Results showed a significant reduction in the number of tasks performed with the wrong tool. Therefore users knew what the current tool was and did not try to perform tasks with the wrong tool. All of this was not at the expense of making the interface any more annoying to use.”
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Brewster, Stephen A. (1998): Using Nonspeech Sounds to Provide Navigation Cues. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 5 (3) pp. 224-259
“This article describes three experiments that investigate the possibility of using structured nonspeech audio messages called earcons to provide navigational cues in a menu hierarchy. A hierarchy of 27 nodes and four levels was created with an earcon for each node. Rules were defined for the creation of hierarchical earcons at each node. Participants had to identify their location in the hierarchy by listening to an earcon. Results of the first experiment showed that participants could identify their location with 81.5% accuracy, indicating that earcons were a powerful method of communicating hierarchy information. One proposed use for such navigation cues is in telephone-based interfaces (TBIs) where navigation is a problem. The first experiment did not address the particular problems of earcons in TBIs such as "does the lower quality of sound over the telephone lower recall rates," "can users remember earcons over a period of time," and "what effect does training type have on recall?" An experiment was conducted and results showed that sound quality did lower the recall of earcons. However, redesign of the earcons overcame this problem with 73% recalled correctly. Participants could still recall earcons at this level after a week had passed. Training type also affected recall. With "personal training" participants recalled 73% of the earcons, but with purely textual training results were significantly lower. These results show that earcons can provide good navigation cues for TBIs. The final experiment used compound, rather than hierarchical, earcons to represent the hierarchy from the first experiment. Results showed that with sounds constructed in this way participants could recall 97% of the earcons. These experiments have developed our general understanding of earcons. A hierarchy three times larger than any previously created was tested, and this was also the first test of the recall of earcons over time.”
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» 1997 «
Brewster, Stephen A. (1997): Navigating Telephone-Based Interfaces with Earcons. In: Thimbleby, Harold, O'Conaill, Brid and Thomas, Peter J. (eds.) Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XII August, 1997, Bristol, England, UK. pp. 39-56.
“Non-speech audio messages called earcons can provide powerful navigation cues in menu hierarchies. However, previous research on earcons has not addressed the particular problems of menus in telephone-based interfaces (TBI's) such as: Does the lower quality of sound in TBI's lower recall rates, can users remember earcons over a period of time and what effect does training type have on recall. An experiment was conducted and results showed that sound quality did lower the recall of earcons. However, redesign of the earcons overcame this problem with 73% recalled correctly. Participants could still recall earcons at this level after a week had passed. Training type also affected recall. With 'personal training' participants recalled 73% of the earcons but with purely textual training results were significantly lower. These results show that earcons can provide excellent navigation cues for telephone-based interfaces.”
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» 1996 «
Brewster, Stephen A., Raty, Veli-Pekka and Kortekangas, Atte (1996): Earcons as a Method of Providing Navigational Cues in a Menu Hierarchy. In: Sasse, Martina Angela, Cunningham, R. J. and Winder, R. L. (eds.) Proceedings of the Eleventh Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XI August, 1996, London, UK. pp. 169-183.
“We describe an experiment to discover if structured audio messages, earcons, could provide navigational cues in a menu hierarchy. A hierarchy of 27 nodes and four levels was created with sounds for each node. Participants had to identify their location in the hierarchy by listening to an earcon. Results showed that participants could identify their location with over 80% accuracy, indicating that earcons are a powerful method of communicating hierarchy information. Participants were also tested to see if they could identify where previously unheard earcons would fit in the hierarchy. The results showed that they could do this with over 90% accuracy. These results show that earcons are a robust and extensible method of communicating hierarchy information in sound.”
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Brewster, Stephen A., Raty, Veli-Pekka and Kortekangas, Atte (1996): Enhancing Scanning Input with Non-Speech Sounds. In: Second Annual ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies 1996. pp. 10-14. Available online
“This paper proposes the addition of non-speech sounds to aid people who use scanning as their method of input. Scanning input is a temporal task; users have to press a switch when a cursor is over the required target. However, it is usually presented as a spatial task with the items to be scanned laid-out in a grid. Research has shown that for temporal tasks the auditory modality is often better than the visual. This paper investigates this by adding non-speech sound to a visual scanning system. It also shows how our natural abilities to perceive rhythms can be supported so that they can be used to aid the scanning process. Structured audio messages called Earcons were used for the sound output. The results from a preliminary investigation were favourable, indicating that the idea is feasible and further research should be undertaken.”
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» 1995 «
Brewster, Stephen A., Wright, Peter C. and Edwards, Alistair (1995): Parallel Earcons: Reducing the Length of Audio Messages. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43 (2) pp. 153-175
“This paper describes a method of presenting structured audio messages, earcons, in parallel so that they take less time to play and can better keep pace with interactions in a human-computer interface. The two component parts of a compound earcon are played in parallel so that the time taken is only that of a single part. An experiment was conducted to test the recall and recognition of parallel compound earcons as compared to serial compound earcons. Results showed that there are no differences in the rates of recognition between the two groups. Non-musicians are also shown to be equal in performance to musicians. Some extensions to the earcon creation guidelines of Brewster, Wright and Edwards are put forward based upon research into auditory stream segregation. Parallel earcons are shown to be an effective means of increasing the presentation rates of audio messages without compromising recognition rates.”
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» 1993 «
Brewster, Stephen A., Wright, Peter C. and Edwards, Alistair (1993): An Evaluation of Earcons for Use in Auditory Human-Computer Interfaces. In: Ashlund, Stacey, Mullet, Kevin, Henderson, Austin, Hollnagel, Erik and White, Ted (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 93 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-29, 1993, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 222-227. Available online
“An evaluation of earcons was carried out to see whether they are an effective means of communicating information in sound. An initial experiment showed that earcons were better than unstructured bursts of sound and that musical timbres were more effective than simple tones. A second experiment was then carried out which improved upon some of the weaknesses shown up in Experiment 1 to give a significant improvement in recognition. From the results of these experiments some guidelines were drawn up for use in the creation of earcons. Earcons have been shown to be an effective method for communicating information in a human-computer interface.”
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