Robert S. Kennedy
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"R. S. Kennedy"
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Publications by Robert S. Kennedy (bibliography)
» 2004 «
Jones, Marshall B., Kennedy, Robert S. and Stanney, Kay M. (2004): Toward Systematic Control of Cybersickness. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 13 (5) pp. 589-600
» 2001 «
Stanney, Kay M., Kingdon, K. and Kennedy, Robert S. (2001): Human Performance in Virtual Environments: Examining User Control Techniques. In: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2001. pp. 1051-1055.
Kennedy, Robert S., Lane, N. E., Stanney, Kay M., Lanham, S. and Kingdon, K. (2001): Use of a Motion Experience Questionnaire to Predict Simulator Sickness. In: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2001. pp. 1061-1065.
» 2000 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Stanney, Kay M. and Dunlap, William P. (2000): Duration and Exposure to Virtual Environments: Sickness Curves During and Across Sessions. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9 (5) pp. 463-472
» 1998 «
Stanney, Kay M., Mourant, Ronald R. and Kennedy, Robert S. (1998): Human Factors Issues in Virtual Environments: A Review of the Literature. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7 (4) pp. 327-351
» 1997 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Lanham, D. Susan, Drexler, Julie M. and Massey, Catherine J. (1997): A Comparison of Cybersickness Incidences, Symptom Profiles, Measurement Techniques, and Suggestions for Further Research. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6 (6) pp. 638-644
Kennedy, Robert S. and Stanney, Kay M. (1997): Aftereffects of Virtual Environment Exposure: Psychometric Issues. In: Smith, Michael J., Salvendy, Gavriel and Koubek, Richard J. (eds.) HCI International 1997 - Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction - Volume 2 August 24-29, 1997, San Francisco, California, USA. pp. 897-900.
Stanney, Kay M. and Kennedy, Robert S. (1997): The Psychometrics of Cybersickness. In Communications of the ACM, 40 (8) pp. 66-68
» 1996 «
Kennedy, Robert S. and Stanney, Kay M. (1996): Postural Instability Induced by Virtual Reality Exposure: Development of a Certification Protocol. In International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (1) pp. 25-47
“Exposure to virtual environments often causes users to experience symptoms of motion sickness. An accessory manifestation of motion sickness symptoms is postural disequilibrium. If the postural disequilibrium that occurs persists beyond the time an individual is within the confines of the laboratory or system site, user safety could be compromised and products liability issues could be forthcoming. In this study, a portable, automated postural assessment system is developed that can be employed before and after exposure to a virtual reality (VR) system in order to certify that a user's balance on exiting the system is at least demonstrably as good as it was on entering. It is argued that if the "coming out" balance performance is sufficiently poorer than the "going in" balance, then the user should be retained until the pretest balance performance is regained. The results from a set of normative and validation experiments on postural equilibrium identified several reliable measures of stance that could serve as a basis for certification. Furthermore, a new automated video-based measure using only head movement showed that performance over sessions is stable and reliable. The head movement changes that occur with stimuli, such as alcohol and simulator exposure, are well behaved, predictable, and significant even with small samples. The implication is that the proposed objective measure of postural stability, in conjunction with procedures for obtaining self-reports of symptoms, can afford some measure of certification that exposure to a given VR system is without harm.”
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» 1995 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Lanham, D. Susan, Turnage, Janet J. and Dunlap, William P. (1995): Readiness for Duty: Tuning False Positives by Simulation from Empirical Data. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 809-813.
“For applications such as the assessment of environmental stress or toxic agents, the metric requirements of performance test batteries include stability, reliability and sensitivity. However, fitness-for-duty applications present additional organizational and management laboratory conditions where the sensitivities of these test batteries are evaluated, the ratio of "treated" to "untreated" subjects is usually 50/50. However, in the workplace, the percentage of persons who are expected NOT to be impaired may be <5% and unless the accuracy of the psychological tests exceeds one minus the percentage NOT”
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Kennedy, Robert S. and Silver, N. Clayton (1995): Temporal Factors in Visual Perception: A Differential Approach. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. p. 891.
“Traditionally, sensory, perceptual, and cognitive psychology were normative fields of study where investigators were interested in those aspects of the responses that are normal (common, shared). In the 70's a "new look" emerged where individual differences were emphasized and paradigms were developed. The predicate for the work reported here follows from the notion that people with better spatial abilities often perform better in jobs that require such skills, while static vision acuity relates to the perception of small spots, fine lines, and grids. We hypothesize that there are other, perhaps equally important abilities ON WHICH INDIVIDUALS DIFFER, and we refer to them collectively as temporal visual factors. These are visual functions that operate faster (neurally) than static acuity and support such activities as real and apparent motion perception. We propose to report on the recent development of a computerized temporal acuity test battery. Separate empirical studies at three universities will describe how the different tests are shown to be stable over repeated measures, have high (r > .707) retest reliability, are factorially rich, and are largely uncorrelated with spatial acuity and intelligence. The tests all work on a 386PC, or better, and are transportable by disk.”
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Jones, Marshall B. and Kennedy, Robert S. (1995): A Temporal Factors Battery for Studying Individual Differences in Perception. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 892-896.
“Individual differences in perception have drawn increased attention from training and task-performance communities. If perceptual tests are to be utilized to train, predict, or optimize performance, then they need to be studied and evaluated as differential measures. In this study, the reliability and individual differences for a perceptual test battery (seven tasks) were investigated. The participants (10 males, 11 females) completed five trials of the test battery within a ten day span. In general, the results of this study are positive. Six of the seven tasks showed sizable individual differences and four of the seven were reliable. The three tasks that showed unreliability have since been modified and need to be formally studied.”
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Silver, Ned C., Kennedy, Robert S., Larson, B. M. and Ritter, Alysia D. (1995): Inter/Intra Correlations of Mental Aptitude and Computerized Visual Temporal Factors. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 897-901.
“Temporal visual acuity is studied in the laboratory using flicker, simultaneity, and dynamic visual acuity. The purpose of the present study was to develop further and examine psychometrically a battery of seven temporal acuity tests that could be used for selection and training, if they had sufficient factorial sickness and minimal overlap with existing global measures of intelligence. A sample of 56 undergraduate students completed four sessions of the temporal factors battery, the Armed Forces Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), and 24 subjects provided scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Results showed that reliability was within the acceptable range for the Search, Dynamic Visual Acuity, Phi Phenomenon, Critical Flicker Fusion, and Masking. For the most part, the temporal factors battery did not correlate significantly with the highly reliable ASVAB or SAT, implying that these temporal factors are somewhat independent of a general intelligence factor. The relevance of these constructs for industrial and military tasks is discussed.”
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Ritter, Alysia D., Royalty, Joel and Kennedy, Robert S. (1995): Visual Theory: Spatial and Temporal Factors. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 902-906.
“The psychometric properties of seven temporal factors (TFT) and five spatial factors (SFT) tests were assessed in a sample of 20 undergraduates. Subjects completed six repeated measures sessions of the TFTs and four trials of SFTs. All tests except Neisser's letter search produced stable measures. Reliabilities ranged from .81 to .98 for Simultaneity, Flicker, Search, and Bistable Stroboscopic Motion and from .59 to .71 for Masking, Phi, and Dynamic Visual Acuity. Of the 70 possible correlations between spatial and temporal batteries (7 TFTs X 5 SFTs X 2 distances), only four were significant. The moderate to high retest reliabilities, combined with the negligible correlations between spatial and temporal tests suggest that the two processes are largely independent.”
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Kennedy, Robert S., Silver, Ned C. and Ritter, Alysia D. (1995): A Visual Test Battery: A Tale of Two Computers. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 907-911.
“Concerted efforts are made to make performance tests comparable across media. When comparing computerized test batteries, however, there may be differences in hardware and software that can produce less than optimum psychometric properties. The present study examined a battery of seven tests implemented on two computers, a Gateway 2000 P4D-33 and a 286 Zenith PC. Results showed that there were differences in performance levels as a function of trials which may be attributed to individual differences. The means and standard deviations were more stable for the Zenith than for the Gateway 2000 P4D-33. It was equivocal whether this was a function of computer or methodology. Additionally, there were no differences in cross-correlations across computerized test batteries. This finding implied that the constructs were consistent across both batteries although mean differences will need to be reckoned with. Implications and limitations for computerized testing are discussed.”
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» 1994 «
Kolasinski, Eugenia M., Jones, Sherrie A., Kennedy, Robert S. and Gilson, Richard D. (1994): Postural Stability and its Relation to Simulator Sickness. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 980.
“The use of simulators as training devices has become widespread, especially in the military for pilot training. Although simulators provide an effective means of training pilots at a much reduced cost compared to actual flight, "simulator sickness" may result. Postural instability is one symptom of this sickness and a well-documented effect of simulator exposure. Postural stability is often measured before and after simulator exposure to determine decrements due to exposure. However, it does not appear that this measure is typically used as a predictor of sickness. The analysis reported in this poster attempts to determine if there is a relationship between postural stability and simulator sickness. Pre-exposure postural stability data and post-exposure simulator sickness data were collected from Navy pilots in conjunction with a training session in a helicopter simulator. These data were analyzed for relationships between postural stability and sickness. It was hypothesized that individuals who are less posturally stable will be more likely to experience simulator sickness or will experience more severe sickness. On the other hand, individuals who are more posturally stable will be less likely to experience simulator sickness or will experience less severe sickness. Several analytical techniques were attempted: Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, Gamma and Lambda categorical methods, ANOVA, and Trend Analysis. Each technique evaluates a different aspect of the data and no one technique best represents the findings. Although clear, strong relationships have not been found, there is evidence suggesting that postural stability is associated with simulator sickness as hypothesized in this study. Further research with a more diverse population and different types of simulators, including virtual environments, is clearly warranted.”
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Silver, N. Clayton, Braun, Curt C. and Kennedy, Robert S. (1994): Identification of Standardized Tasks for the Assessment of Operator Workload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 982.
“As cockpits become increasingly complex, operation and control of the aircraft requires that pilots integrate information from a wide variety of sources. Thus, the pilot's workload has increased as a function of this complexity. Traditional efforts aimed at reducing operator workload via automation have produced mixed results. An alternative to this approach involves using adaptive automation in which system and subsystems are automated as a function of operator workload. The feasibility of such automation, however, is dependent upon the reliable measurement of operator workload. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in workload and performance in a cognitive task, namely channel monitoring. Nineteen undergraduate psychology students completed a complex counting task. Participants were instructed to monitor a specific number of channels and respond after counting a specific number of tones in each monitored channel. There were three monitored channels, three interstimulus intervals (0.5, 1.5, and 3.0 seconds), and number of events counted (2, 4, and 8). The participant responded to all 27 conditions. Perceived workload increased and performance decreased as the number of channels monitored increased, the interstimulus interval decreased, and the number of events counted increased. These results demonstrate that an available workload measure can provide differences in operator workload and serve as the foundation for future research. These findings and tasks can be used as a tool to assess the sensitivity of other workload measures.”
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Berbaum, Kevin S., Kennedy, Robert S. and Braun, Curt C. (1994): Postural Disequilibrium Following Adaptation to Virtual Environments: Concern for Post Simulator Activity. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. p. 986.
“Virtual environment technology may increase the usefulness of simulation in military training by improving on some aspects of current technology and by permitting simulation to be applied in training domains not currently addressed. However, like its forerunner -- current simulation technology, there may be some hazards associated with its use. To assess changes in postural stability associated with adaptation to simulated environments, measures of simulator sickness and postural stability were taken from 127 military pilots completing flight training in a helicopter simulator which included full 6 degrees of motion and 60 inches of travel. Before and after each of ten simulator flights flown every weekday for two weeks, the participants completed a Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, a self report symptom checklist that may be scored for nausea, visuomotor and disorientation. In addition, before-and-after tests of walking and standing steadiness were completed. Postflight sickness was significantly greater than preflight. Postflight postural stability was significantly lower than preflight stability. Both motion-sickness and postural stability decreased across ten exposures to the simulator. That individuals adapt to the simulator is indicated the reduction in reported motion-sickness following repeated exposure. However, as they become increasing adapted to the simulated environment, they experience a reduction in postural stability upon leaving the simulator. As they become adapted to the simulator, they are less well adapted to the real world. The implications of an individual who is less able to function in the real world extend far beyond the training effectiveness of a simulator or the symptoms experienced by a trainee. Individual adapted to a virtual environment should not be expected to interact appropriately with the now non-adapted real world.”
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Braun, Curt C., Sansing, Lori, Kennedy, Robert S. and Silver, N. Clayton (1994): Signal Word and Color Specifications for Product Warnings: An Isoperformance Application. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1104-1108.
“Recent work in the area of color and warnings has indicated that the level of hazard communicated by signal words varies as a function of the color in which they are printed. These findings suggest that signal word and color combinations create a continuum of perceived hazard. Although individual experiments advance the understanding of how color affects the perception of product hazard, explicit data do not always provide label designers and product manufacturers with the tools necessary to successfully apply them. To explore how color and signal words can be jointly used, the present effort applied the isoperformance technique to the problem of specifying signal word and color combinations. This technique identifies combinations of variables that produce equal (iso) levels of warning (performance). Using perceived hazard data from 30 participants, signal words and colors were systematically grouped into categories that conveyed equal levels of hazard. How the isoperformance technique might serve as a tool for label designers is described.”
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» 1993 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Turnage, Janet J. and Dunlap, William P. (1993): Diagnosis of Alcohol Intoxication: Effectiveness of Cognitive and Neurovestibular Field Sobriety Tests. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting 1993. pp. 964-968.
“Tests from an automated performance test battery of cognitive tests and the standardized field sobriety tests (FST) used nationwide by law enforcement officers were administered in three experiments involving graded dosages of alcohol. In the first experiment, subjects were raised to one of four levels of alcohol dosage in four different sessions. In the second experiment, the descending branch of the blood alcohol level (BAL) curve was monitored from .15 BAL, and cognitive and motor performances were assessed by the Automated Performance Test System (APTS) and FST. In the third experiment, the ascending and descending limbs of the alcohol dosage curve were followed. Dose-response relationships were conducted and were statistically significant (p < .001) in all three studies for all but one test when evaluated singly. Using either test battery, composite scores could be employed to index degraded performance from elevated blood alcohol levels. The best single test was gaze nystagmus from the FST battery and the next best was code substitution from the cognitive battery. Taken singly, the individual tests ranged from 66% to 81% in terms of correctly detecting the dichotomous criterion of < 0.10 versus 0.10 BAC and above. These results are discussed in the context of standards setting for driving under the influence (DUI) and the use of behavioral tests to evaluate over-the-counter and prescription drugs.”
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Kennedy, Robert S., Berbaum, Kevin S. and Smith, Martin G. (1993): Methods for Correlating Visual Scene Elements with Simulator Sickness Incidence. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting 1993. pp. 1252-1256.
“Simulator sickness occurs in a large number of Army, Navy, and Marine Corps simulators, and is most prevalent in moving-base, rotary-wing devices which employ cathode ray tube (CRT) video displays as opposed to fixed-wing, dome-display trainers with no motion base. Based on data from a factor analysis of over 1000 Navy and Marine Corps pilot simulation exposures, a new scoring procedure was applied to two helicopter simulators with similar rates of simulator sickness incidence. Based on the factor analytic scoring key, the two simulators showed slightly different sickness profiles. Preliminary work was begun to record the visual scene by video frame-by-frame decomposition and automated scoring algorithms were developed. The findings are discussed from the standpoints of (1) recommendations for future design and use of simulators, and (2) the metric advantages and other merits of the "field experiment" methodology to address human factors problems with simulator sickness.”
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Kennedy, Robert S., Ritter, A. D., Berbaum, K. S. and Smith, M. G. (1993): Development of a Microcomputer Based Battery of Temporal Factors Tests. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting 1993. pp. 1365-1369.
“Our industrialized society places a premium on the ability to resolve visually fine-spatial detail in the environment. But the perceptual demands of new display systems may involve temporal acuity as much as spatial acuity. Inability to "switch" attention and fixation rapidly from one visual display to another may be a major factor in the "human error" component. We hypothesize that individuals differ in their temporal visual acuity and, if so, then scores on tests which tap this capability would be predictive of productivity on jobs and activities with these demand characteristics. A battery of five temporal factors tests implemented on a portable lap-top microcomputer was administered over several trials to 44 subjects. The tests exhibited satisfactory metric properties (stability, reliability), and did not appear to relate to commonly available global mental abilities. An off-the-shelf portable battery of temporal factors which stabilizes rapidly could have several important applications. First, individual differences in temporal acuity could be employed to improve job productivity to the extent that such abilities are at the basis of certain jobs and activities. Second, since time-course changes were evident with the tests, they can be used to study training implications of these temporal factors. Third, the results could be used to identify temporal aspects of visual displays for advancing understanding in engineering design.”
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» 1992 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Lane, Norman E., Lilienthal, Michael G., Berbaum, Kevin S. and Hettinger, Lawrence J. (1992): Profile Analysis of Simulator Sickness Symptoms: Application to Virtual Environment Systems. In Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 1 (3) pp. 295-301
» 1991 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Dunlap, William P. and Turnage, Janet J. (1991): An Individual Differences Approach to Fitness-for-Duty Assessment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1020-1023.
Kennedy, Robert S. (1991): Will Simulator-Like Sickness Have Impacts on Training in Virtual Environments?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1346-1347.
» 1989 «
Baltzley, Dennis R., Kennedy, Robert S. and Turnage, Janet J. (1989): Assessing Fitness-for-Duty: An Alternative to Problems Associated with Drug Testing in the Workplace. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting 1989. pp. 816-819.
“A projected 20-33% of U S. companies are involved in some type of drug screening. Usually, the larger companies implement these programs with over 50% of the Fortune 500 companies reporting testing (Walsh, 1988). In federally regulated industry the percentage of drug screening varies as a function of public safety. For example, 91% of the utilities have a program, as do 81% of the transportation industry, 45% of manufacturing, 34.5% of the communications industry. Industry, both public and private, is becoming increasingly aware of the price paid by the organization and the individual when alcohol/drug misuse is present in the workplace. Some of these testing programs use a least intrusive approach and screen only after an accident, fight, or other "probable cause" event (Walsh, 1988). However, many organizations administer programs on a regular basis through random testing (NIDA, 1988). These organizations include the Department of Transportation, Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Navy, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Department of Treasury, Customs, Secret Service, Central Intelligence Agency, U.S. Postal Service, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and many public utilities.”
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» 1988 «
Kennedy, Robert S., Baltzley, D. R., Osteen, M. K. and Turange, J. J. (1988): A Differential Approach to Microcomputer Test Battery Development and Implementation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 838-842.
“The Automated Performance Test System (APTS), a microcomputer-based performance test battery, has been under development for over five years. The emphasis has been on psychometric theory and utility for repeated-measures applications during extended exposure to various environmental stressors. Stability of means and variances and retest reliability have been the criteria for suitability of a test. In addition, differential stability (i.e., parallelism of individual differences over sessions) is a unique requirement for test acceptability in this battery. In the present menu of "qualified" mental tests, there are presently more than 30 fully up-and-running on portable Zenith and NEC microcomputers as well as floppy disks for IBM compatible systems. Qualified tests stabilize in less than 10 minutes and possess test-retest reliabilities of r > 0.70 for a three-minute test/work period. The battery includes tests of cognition, information processing, psychomotor skill, memory, mood, and others. More than a dozen normative laboratory and field studies have been conducted to validate the stability and reliability requirements of the tests in the battery and more than a dozen "sensitivity" studies have been or are in the process of being completed. To date, one or more tests have been shown sensitive to chemoradiotherapy, sleep loss, hypoxia, amphetamine, hyoscine, mood disorders, thermal stress, sensory deprivation, motion stress, altitude, fatigue, and alcohol use. The present paper describes our experiences with these tests and reports on a recommended menu for a short battery (6 minutes), a middle length battery (12 minutes), and a longer battery (22 minutes). Other test batteries which are presently under development do not pay as much attention to individual differences. The consequence of this inattention is low sensitivity if test-rest reliability is poor and inability to properly attribute effects if instability occurs.”
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Nolan, Margaret D., Hettinger, Lawrence J., Kennedy, Robert S. and Edinger, Katrina M. (1988): Individual Differences in Flight Simulation Performance Experiments. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1001-1005.
“In a review of flight simulation performance experiments conducted at the U.S. Navy's Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS), it was observed that individual difference variables accounted for a major portion of the total explained variance, in many cases more than the simulator equipment variables that were deliberately manipulated. This finding underscores the importance of individual differences in performance and training research in support of man-machine systems development and implementation. The identification of the substrata underlying individual differences will impact on equipment design considerations and training program requirements for military and industrial systems.”
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Fowlkes, Jennifer E., Kennedy, Robert S., Dunlap, William P. and Harbeson, Mary M. (1988): A Paradigm for the Identification of Independent Cognitive Constructs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1016-1020.
“A promising approach in recent years has been to develop measures of individual differences based upon componential cognitive theory to supplement or supplant traditional measures. Cognitive tests are developed to measure theoretically based mental operations which can be isolated by the computation of derived measures such as slope and difference scores. Along with others, we believe there are impediments to this approach due to unreliability of derived measures and lack of demonstrated statistical independence of tests of cognitive abilities. This paper describes a methodology for examining measures of individual differences in information processing skills that first follows the tenets of psychometric theory and then addresses cognitive theories. The approach is illustrated by demonstrating its application in tests representing four distinct cognitive paradigms which were administered repeatedly to subjects over three weeks. Recommended direct measures and derived scores for the four paradigms were examined in terms of their stabilities, retest reliabilities, and cross-correlations. Use of these procedures revealed that 1) derived scores had reliabilities near zero, and therefore, their correlations with other variables were equally low, rendering them of little use as individual difference variables, and 2) correlations between basic or nonderived scores were as high as their reliabilities would allow, suggesting that one common factor could account for the majority of the variance. The generality of this repeated measures paradigmatic approach to the identification of individual differences in human ability is illustrated by describing its application to the evaluation of a family of video games, tests of episodic memory, and visual contrast sensitivity at different spatial frequencies.”
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» 1987 «
Fowlkes, J. E., Kennedy, Robert S. and Lilienthal, M. G. (1987): Postural Disequilibrium Following Training Flights. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 488-491.
“The use of flight simulators for training military aircrew and commercial pilots has been increasing dramatically since World War II. However, the advantages of simulator training, such as cost-effectiveness and variety of missions which can be safely flown, may be offset by the occurrence of ataxia and other symptoms associated with simulator training. The present paper reports on postural disequilibrium following training in eight Navy flight simulators. Tests of standing steadiness were administered to 726 Naval and Marine Corps aviators prior to and then just following their regular flight training. Statistically significant ataxic effects were found following simulator exposure. The implications of these data for safety are discussed.”
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Hettinger, Lawrence J., Nolan, Margaret D., Kennedy, Robert S., Berbaum, Kevin S., Schnitzius, Kevin P. and Edinger, Katrina M. (1987): Visual Display Factors Contributing to Simulator Sickness. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 497-501.
“The history of research on visually-induced illusory self motion, or vection, has demonstrated that in many instances observers have experienced disturbances similar to those of motion sickness. Visual displays in flight simulators may also produce the experience of vection, and illusions of self motion are likely to become more common with the increased use of wide field-of-view presentations of realistic imagery. Many of the disturbances observed in laboratory studies of vection have also been found in simulators, and are likely to become more common. This paper presents a background to the study of visual-vestibular disturbances associated with illusory self motion in flight simulators, and an overview of current experimental efforts aimed at identifying the causal factors.”
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Jones, Marshall B., Kennedy, Robert S., Kuntz, Lois A. and Baltzley, Dennis R. (1987): Isoperformance: Trading Off Selection, Training, and Equipment Variations to Maintain the Same Level of Systems Performance. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 634-637.
“This paper details an Air Force sponsored project known as Isoperformance. Isoperformance (iso meaning same) is a conceptual approach to human factors engineering. The focus of isoperformance is that the same level of performance can be attained by different combinations of personnel, training, and equipment. This goal is, once these combinations have been determined, a choice among them can be made in terms of maximum feasibility or minimum cost. The program takes into account human engineering, personnel, and training research. The specific focus of this paper will be the interactive computer program. Input to the isoperformance program, made by the user, includes the system, the task, a quantified definition of proficient performance as well as other specifications.”
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Mar 15th, 2010
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