David D. Woods
Has also published under the name of:
"Dave Woods"
Personal Homepage:
csel.eng.ohio-state.edu/woods/Current place of employment:
Ohio State UniversityDr. David Woods (Purdue '79) is a professor at Ohio State University in the Institute for Ergonomics and Past-President of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. From his initial work following the Three Mile Island accident in nuclear power, to studies of coordination breakdowns between people and automation in aviation accidents, to his role in today’s national debates about patient safety, he has studied how human and team cognition contributes to success and failure in complex, high risk systems. He was on the board of the National Patient Safety Foundation from its founding until 2002 and served as Associate Director of the Veterans Health Administration’s Midwest Center for Inquiry on Patient Safety (1999-2002). He is author of Behind Human Error, received the Jack A. Kraft Innovator Award from Human Factors and Ergonomic Society for advancing Cognitive Engineering and its application to safer systems, and received a Laurels Award from Aviation Week and Space Technology (1995) on the human factors of highly automated cockpits. He currently serves on a National Academy of Engineering/ Institute of Medicine Study Panel applying engineering to improve health care systems and on a National Research Council panel on research to define the future of the national air transportation system.
Publications by David D. Woods (bibliography)
» 2006 «
Woods, David D. (2006): The law of stretched systems in action: exploiting robots. In: Proceedings of the 1st ACM SIGCHI/SIGART Conference on Human-Robot Interaction 2006. p. 1. Available online
“Robotic systems represent new capabilities that justifiably excite technologists and problem holders in many areas. But what affordances do the new capabilities represent and how will problem holders and practitioners exploit these capabilities as they struggle to meet performance demands and resource pressures? Discussions of the impact of new robotic technology typically mistake new capabilities for affordances in use. The dominate note is that robots as autonomous agents will revolutionize human activity. This is a fundamental oversimplification (see Feltovich et al., 2001) as past research has shown that advances in autonomy (an intrinsic capability) have turned out to demand advances in support for coordinated activity (extrinsic affordances). The Law of Stretched Systems captures the co-adaptive dynamic that human leaders under pressure for higher and more efficient levels of performance will exploit new capabilities to demand more complex forms of work (Woods and Dekker, 2000; Woods and Hollnagel, 2006). This law provides a guide to use past findings on the reverberations of technology change to project how effective leaders and operators will exploit the capabilities of future robotic systems. When one applies the Law of Stretched Systems to new robotic capabilities for demanding work settings, one begins to see new stories about how problem holders work with and through robotic systems to accomplish goals. These are not stories about machine autonomy and the substitution myth. Rather, the new capabilities trigger the exploration of new story lines about future operations that concern: * how to coordinate activities over wider ranges, * how to expand our perception and action over larger spans through remote devices, and * how to project our intent into distant situations to achieve our goals.”
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» 2005 «
Woods, David D. and Hollnagel, Erik (eds.) (2005): Joint Cognitive Systems. Foundations of Cognitive Systems Engineering. Boca Raton, Florida, USA, CRC Press
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» 2001 «
Patterson, Emily S. and Woods, David D. (2001): Shift Changes, Updates, and the On-Call Architecture in Space Shuttle Mission Control. In Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 10 (3) pp. 317-346
“In domains such as nuclear power, industrial process control, and space shuttle mission control, there is increased interest in reducing personnel during nominal operations. An essential element in maintaining safe operations in high risk environments with this 'on-call' organizational architecture is to understand how to bring called-in practitioners up to speed quickly during escalating situations. Targeted field observations were conducted to investigate what it means to update a supervisory controller on the status of a continuous, anomaly-driven process in a complex, distributed environment. Sixteen shift changes, or handovers, at the NASA Johnson Space Center were observed during the STS-76 Space Shuttle mission. The findings from this observational study highlight the importance of prior knowledge in the updates and demonstrate how missing updates can leave flight controllers vulnerable to being unprepared. Implications for mitigating risk in the transition to 'on-call' architectures are discussed.”
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» 2000 «
Woods, David D. and Hollnagel, Erik (2000): Joint Cognitive Systems. Patterns in Cognitive Systems Engineering. CRC Press
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» 1999 «
Patterson, Emily S., Watts-Perotti, Jennifer and Woods, David D. (1999): Voice Loops as Coordination Aids in Space Shuttle Mission Control. In Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8 (4) pp. 353-371
“Voice loops, an auditory groupware technology, are essential coordination support tools for experienced practitioners in domains such as air traffic management, aircraft carrier operations and space shuttle mission control. They support synchronous communication on multiple channels among groups of people who are spatially distributed. In this paper, we suggest reasons for why the voice loop system is a successful medium for supporting coordination in space shuttle mission control based on over 130 hours of direct observation. Voice loops allow practitioners to listen in on relevant communications without disrupting their own activities or the activities of others. In addition, the voice loop system is structured around the mission control organization, and therefore directly supports the demands of the domain. By understanding how voice loops meet the particular demands of the mission control environment, insight can be gained for the design of groupware tools to support cooperative activity in other event-driven domains.”
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Hollnagel, Erik and Woods, David D. (1999): Cognitive Systems Engineering: New Wine in New Bottles. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 51 (2) pp. 339-356
“This paper presents an approach to the description and analysis of complex Man-Machine Systems (MMSs) called Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE). In contrast to traditional approaches to the study of man-machine systems which mainly operate on the physical and physiological level, CSE operates on the level of cognitive functions. Instead of viewing an MMS as decomposable by mechanistic principles, CSE introduces the concept of a cognitive system: an adaptive system which functions using knowledge about itself and the environment in the planning and modification of actions. Operators are generally acknowledged to use a model of the system (machine) with which they work. Similarly, the machine has an image of the operator. The designer of an MMS must recognize this, and strive to obtain a match between the machine's image and the user characteristics on a cognitive level, rather than just on the level of physical functions. This article gives a presentation of what cognitive systems are, and of how CSE can contribute to the design of an MMS, from cognitive task analysis to final evaluation.”
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Watts-Perotti, Jennifer and Woods, David D. (1999): How Experienced Users Avoid Getting Lost in Large Display Networks. In International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 11 (4) pp. 269-299
“This article provides a cognitive analysis of how people navigate in the computer medium. As the complexity of computerized information systems increases, interface designers face the formidable challenge of supporting navigation within these systems to allow users to quickly obtain relevant information. Instead of focusing on the comparison of a small subset of proposed techniques for aiding navigation, this study investigates how people handle navigation within the natural context of a familiar computer environment and reveals cognitive processes that can be better supported to aid navigation. The results of a field study and a field experiment converge to support previous navigation-related theories and contribute to a pattern of navigation behavior that has been noticed in domains like anesthesiology and nuclear power. This article describes the characteristics of the computer medium that influence people's ability to navigate, discusses typical navigation problems that arise in this medium, and describes how designers can aid navigation, based on an analysis of how computer users change their behavior and adapt to computer systems to overcome navigation-related problems.”
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» 1996 «
Watts, Jennifer C., Woods, David D., Corban, Jim M., Patterson, Emily S., Kerr, Ronald L. and Hicks, LaDessa C. (1996): Voice Loops as Cooperative Aids in Space Shuttle Mission Control. In: Olson, Gary M., Olson, Judith S. and Ackerman, Mark S. (eds.) Proceedings of the 1996 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work November 16 - 20, 1996, Boston, Massachusetts, United States. pp. 48-56. Available online
“In domains like air traffic management, aircraft carrier operations, and space mission control, practitioners coordinate their activities through voice loops that allow communication among groups of people who are spatially separate. Voice loops have evolved into essential coordination support tools for experienced practitioners in space shuttle mission control, as well as other domains. We describe how voice loops support the coordination of activities and cognitive processes in event-driven domains like space shuttle mission control. We discuss how the loops help flight controllers synchronize their activities and integrate information, and how they facilitate directed communication and support the negotiation of interruptions. In addition, we suggest factors like attentional cues, implicit protocols, and the structure and features of the loops, which might govern the success of voice loops in the mission control domain. Our results should provide insight into the important functions that should be considered in the development of systems intended to support cooperative work.”
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» 1995 «
Sarter, Nadine B. and Woods, David D. (1995): "From Tool to Agent": The Evolution of (Cockpit) Automation and Its Impact on Human-Machine Coordination. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 79-83.
“In a variety of domains, researchers have observed breakdowns in human-automation coordination and cooperation. One form of breakdown is a lack of mode awareness which can result in 'automation surprises'. These are, in part, related to a lack of adequate feedback on system status and behavior. The need for effective and timely feedback has become even more pressing with the evolution of systems that operate at increasingly high levels of authority and autonomy. In the absence of improved feedback design, however, the gap between required and available information has widened. To explore the impact of this trend towards 'strong yet silent' machine agents, a line of research was conducted on pilot-automation coordination on the Airbus A-320, an aircraft that exemplifies these trends. This research involved a survey of pilots' line experiences with the A-320 automation, observations of transition training to the airplane, and an experimental simulation study on pilots' mode awareness and pilot-automation coordination. The results of this work indicate a trend from mode errors of commission (which represented a more frequent problem on early generation 'glass cockpit' aircraft) to errors of omission. In other words, pilots were more likely to fail to observe and interfere with uncommanded and undesired automation and aircraft behavior. Such errors of omission also seem to have played a role in recent incidents and accidents. They illustrate the need for improved communicative abilities in autonomous and powerful systems to enable them to actively support the coordination between human and machine.”
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Endsley, Mica R., Klein, Gary, Woods, David D., Smith, Philip J. and Selcon, Stephen J. (1995): Future Directions in Cognitive Engineering and Naturalistic Decision Making. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting 1995. pp. 450-453.
“Cognitive Engineering and Naturalistic Decision Making are presented as two related fields of endeavor that seek to understand how people process information and perform within complex systems and to develop ways of applying this knowledge within the design and training process. This panel presents an overview of the current state of the art in this research domain and charts paths for needed developments in the field in the near future.”
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» 1994 «
Johannesen, Leila J., Cook, Richard I. and Woods, David D. (1994): Cooperative Communications in Dynamic Fault Management. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 225-229.
“The motivation for this research is to further theory on the development of artificial intelligence systems that function as "team players" in dynamic fault management applications. One challenge is effectively supporting the practitioner in understanding the assessments and actions of the intelligent system. The typical expert system approach to explanations is not well suited to the cognitive demands of dynamic fault management. In order to gain insight into effective cooperative interaction in dynamic fault management, we have undertaken a field of study of practitioners in one such domain, anesthesiology. We analyze the findings using the theoretical framework of a common ground and common frame of reference.”
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Shattuck, Lawrence G. and Woods, David D. (1994): The Critical Incident Technique: Forty Years Later. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1080-1084.
“This year marks the both anniversary of the publication of John Ranagan's paper entitled "The Critical Incident Technique" in Psychological Bulletin. In the years since its publication, much has happened in the field of human factors. The critical incident technique is still a common tool among human factors practitioners, though it has often been modified. With a new generation of practitioners in training, it is important to consider what they are learning about this tool. A survey conducted with future human factors professionals highlights some misconceptions concerning the critical incident technique. These misconceptions seem to originate from two sources: the treatment of the technique in human factors textbooks and handbooks, and the use of the technique in current research and application work. Some modern variations of the critical incident technique are discussed. The critical incident technique is viewed as an instance in which human factors specialists are shaping their tools to meet their needs. A set of principles is proposed to guide today's human factors practitioners in conducting cognitively oriented field research.”
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» 1993 «
Woods, David D. (1993): The Price of Flexibility. In: Gray, Wayne D., Hefley, William and Murray, Dianne (eds.) International Workshop on Intelligent User Interfaces 1993 January 4-7, 1993, Orlando, Florida, USA. pp. 19-25. Available online
“Flexibility and customizability are central to the perceived advantages of the growth in technological powers. But this and other vectors of technological change, when used clumsily, create new burdens and complexities for beleaguered human practitioners responsible for achieving goals within some field of activity. "Intelligent interfaces" are sometimes seen as a solution to the growing demands of highly technological and highly automated fields of activity. However, data from a variety of sources indicates that a technology driven approach to the development of intelligent interfaces is likely to provide the illusion of assistance while creating a new layer of burdens and complexities. What distinguishes technological flexibilities that are used to increase the range of practitioner adaptive response to the variability resident in the field of activity from technological flexibilities that simply create new burdens on the practitioner especially at high tempo, high criticality periods?”
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» 1992 «
Sarter, Nadine B. and Woods, David D. (1992): Mode Error in Supervisory Control of Automated Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 26-29.
“Mode errors are one kind of breakdown in human-computer interaction. The concept was developed originally in the context of relatively simple reactive computerized devices such as word processors. When a device possesses multiple modes, where something is done one way in one mode and another way in another mode, there is increased potential for erroneous actions. In this paper we extend and expand the concept of mode error to supervisory control of automated resources in event-driven situations such as pilot interaction with cockpit automation. In this type of situation, the state of the automated system can change in response to either operator input, situation factors or system factors. This creates complexities in tracking system mode changes over time, surprises created by "uncommanded" mode changes, and the possibility of errors of omission as well as commission in managing multiple system modes. Progress in our understanding of mode error in the context of highly automated systems is important in our ability to develop effective countermeasures for mode-related problems in human-computer cooperation.”
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Woods, David D., Johannesen, Leila and Potter, Scott S. (1992): The Sophistry of Guidelines: Revisiting Recipes for Color Use in Human-Computer Interface Design. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 418-422.
“A survey study of color guidelines for user-computer interface design was undertaken and assessed against relevant knowledge about the human perceptual system. The main problem found is that some guidelines are dissociated from knowledge of how the human perceptual system works in relation to the constraints of the computer as a medium for perception. The guidelines approach, whose goal is to produce straightforward, concise recommendations for a diverse audience, may encourage this situation. Some specific problems and gaps in color guidelines are discussed. An alternative approach based on gearing guidance to the difficulties and common problems faced by designers is sketched.”
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Woods, David D. and Cook, Richard I. (1992): The Link between Design Errors in Human-Computer Interaction, Latent Failures, and System Disaster. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. .
» 1991 «
Corker, Kevin, Pew, Richard W., Cream, Bertram W., Smith, Barry R., Butler, Keith A., Day, Carroll N., Monk, Donald L., Young, Michael J. and Woods, David D. (1991): Evaluative Techniques for Automation Impacts on the Human Operator. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1253-1254.
» 1990 «
Sarter, Nadine B., Woods, David D., Braune, Rolf J., Palmer, Everett, Rogers, William H., Wickens, Christopher D., Harwood, Kelly, Andre, Anthony, Aretz, Anthony, Wiener, Earl L. and Boje, Elmar (1990): Situational Awareness in the Advanced Commercial Aircraft Cockpit. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 21-25.
Potter, Scott S., Cook, Richard I., Woods, David D. and McDonald, John S. (1990): The Role of Human Factors Guidelines in Designing Usable Systems: A Case Study of Operating Room Equipment. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 392-395.
“Recently, the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) adopted human engineering guidelines which represent the first formal compilation of general human factors materials for use by medical equipment designers. The applicability of these guidelines was addressed by evaluating a new microprocessor based device based on the AAMI guidelines and again using broader principles and techniques from human-computer interaction (HCI). While the device met the majority of applicable guideline recommendations, the second review identified more substantive human engineering deficiencies not addressed by the AAMI recommendations. Examples included hidden modes of operation, inconsistent signal-action mapping, complex resetting sequences, and violations of expectations. Application of these HCI issues predict confusion in using the device and limitations in diagnosing and correcting problems. Interviews with users of the device confirmed these predictions by finding that participants had major gaps, inconsistencies, and misconceptions in their mental models of the device. This investigation suggests that, in an era of microprocessor based devices, traditional human factors guidelines are only a starting point for a comprehensive approach to equipment design. To be effective as design aids (especially for designers not trained in human factors), human factors guidelines must address and incorporate HCI issues. Additionally, emphasis needs to be on methodologically oriented principles (Gould, 1988; Woods and Eastman, 1989) to aid designers in the process of design.”
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Woods, David D., Roth, Emilie M., Stubler, William F. and Mumaw, Randall J. (1990): Navigating Through Large Display Networks in Dynamic Control Applications. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 396-399.
“There is an increasing trend to use computer display systems as the primary "window" by which users see and interact with complex dynamic processes (e.g., air traffic control; computerized control rooms for process control). These kinds of applications offer special challenges to the design of computer based display systems. In particular, the large scope of these applications necessitates large display structures involving thousands of displays. Further, the dynamic nature of the tasks mean that users need to be able to move rapidly through the display structure to keep pace with temporally evolving situations and to be able to respond to new events as they occur. As a result, special display navigation challenges arise in computer based display systems for monitoring and controlling dynamic processes.”
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Cook, Richard I., Woods, David D. and Howie, Michael B. (1990): The Natural History of Introducing New Information Technology into a High-Risk Environment. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 429-433.
“In order to study the impact of automation on complex, high consequence domains, we observed the introduction of a new computer based surgical operating room information system and its effect on cardiac anesthesiologists and their tasks. Recently developed operating room monitoring systems show considerable integration of function compared to older, discrete monitoring ensembles. The new systems differ from their predecessors in the method of display, human interface, and automation of functions previously divided between discrete monitoring elements. The results demonstrate how automation, especially clumsy automation, affects practitioner work patterns and suggests that clumsy automation constrains users in specific and significant ways.”
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Schurman, Donald L., Kantowitz, Barry H., Woods, David D., Reason, James, Ryan, Thomas G. and Spurgin, Anthony J. (1990): Panel Discussion of "HRA -- Where Shouldst Thou Turn?": A Controversial View. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 649-650.
Woods, David D., Roth, Emilie M. and Pople, Jr. Harry E. (1990): Modeling Operator Performance in Emergencies. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 1132-1136.
Roth, Emilie M. and Woods, David D. (1990): Analyzing the Cognitive Demands of Problem-Solving Environments: An Approach to Cognitive Task Analysis. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 1314-1317.
“We describe an approach to cognitive task analysis that utilizes two mutually reinforcing analyses. One analysis focuses on building a description of the cognitive demands imposed by the world that any intelligent agent would have to deal with (a model of the cognitive environment). The second analysis, conducted in parallel, is an empirical investigation of how practitioners, both experts and less skilled individuals, respond to the task demands (a performance model). We then discuss how a cognitive simulation can support a cognitive task analysis.”
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» 1988 «
Woods, David D. and Elias, Glenn (1988): Significance Messages: An Integrated Display Concept. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1350-1354.
“This paper describes one integral display concept -- Significance Messages -- which communicates the significance of a numerical value of some continuous parameter. The Significance Messages System combines a variety of kinds of raw data using software techniques from artificial intelligence in order to build a qualitative scale that communicates what a numeric value of some parameter means about the state of the application world given the current context. The Significance Messages concept is built as a generic "shell" that knows about different kinds of qualitative states, contextual factors, and heuristics to focus on relevant data. The designer enters domain specific, parameter specific knowledge about alarm setpoints, automatic system setpoints, etc. and about the specific contextual factors that are relevant to the interpretation of that parameter in order to create a particular Significance Messages Display for a particular application.”
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» 1987 «
Woods, David D. and Hollnagel, Erik (1987): Mapping Cognitive Demands in Complex Problem-Solving Worlds. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 26 (2) pp. 257-275
Mancini, Giuseppe, Woods, David D. and Hollnagel, Erik (1987): Introduction. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27 (5) pp. 459-461
Roth, Emilie M., Bennett, Kevin B. and Woods, David D. (1987): Human Interaction with an "Intelligent" Machine. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27 (5) pp. 479-525
“In this paper we report the results of a study of technicians diagnosing faults in electro-mechanical equipment with the aid of an expert system. Technicians varying in level of experience and interactive style (active or passive) diagnosed faults varying in level of difficulty. The results indicate that the standard approach to expert system design, in which the user is assigned the role of data gatherer for the machine, is inadequate. Problem solving was marked by novel situations outside the machine's competence, special conditions, underspecified instructions, and error recovery, all of which required substantial knowledge and active participation on the part of technicians. We argue that the design of intelligent systems should be based on the notion of a joint cognitive system architecture: computational technology should be used to aid the user in the process of solving his problem. The human's role is to achieve total system performance as a manager of knowledge resources that can vary in kind and amount of "intelligence" or power.”
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Woods, David D. (1987): Commentary: Cognitive Engineering in Complex and Dynamic Worlds. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27 (5) pp. 571-585
» 1985 «
Sorkin, Robert D. and Woods, David D. (1985): Systems with Human Monitors: A Signal Detection Analysis. In Human-Computer Interaction, 1 (1) pp. 49-75
“Automated factories, the flightdecks of commercial aircraft, and the control rooms of power plants are examples of decision-making environments in which a human operator performs an alerted-monitor role. These human-machine systems include automated monitor or alerting subsystems operating in support of a human monitor. The automated monitor subsystem makes preprogrammed decisions about the state of the underlying process based on current inputs and expectations about normal/abnormal operating conditions. When alerted by the automated monitor subsystem, the human monitor may analyze input data, confirm or disconfirm the decision made by the automated monitor, and take appropriate further action. In this paper, the combined automated monitor-human monitor system is modeled as a signal detection system in which the human operator and the automated component monitor partially correlated noisy channels. The signal detection analysis shows that overall system performance is highly sensitive to the interaction between the human's monitoring strategy and the decision parameter, C{sub:a}, of the automated monitor subsystem. Usual design practice is to set C{sub:a} to a value that optimizes the automated monitor's detection and false alarm rates. Our analysis shows that this setting will not yield optimal performance for the overall human-machine system. Furthermore, overall system performance may be limited to a narrow range of realizable detection and error rates. As a result, large gains in system performance can be achieved by manipulating the parameters of the automated monitor subsystem in light of the workload characteristics of the human operator.”
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» 1984 «
Woods, David D. (1984): Visual Momentum: A Concept to Improve the Cognitive Coupling of Person and Computer. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21 (3) pp. 229-244
“Computer display system users must integrate data across successive displays. This problem of across-display processing is analogous to the question of how the visual system combines data across successive glances (fixations). Research from cognitive psychology on the latter question is used in order to formulate guidelines for the display designer. The result is a new principle of person-computer interaction, visual momentum, which captures knowledge about the mechanisms that support the identification of "relevant" data in human perception so that display system design can support an effective distribution of user attention. The negative consequences of low visual momentum on user performance are described, and display design techniques are presented to improve user across-display information extraction.”
Copyrights may apply
» 1983 «
Hollnagel, Erik and Woods, David D. (1983): Cognitive Systems Engineering: New Wine in New Bottles. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 18 (6) pp. 583-600
“This paper presents an approach to the description and analysis of complex Man-Machine Systems (MMSs) called Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE). In contrast to traditional approaches to the study of man-machine systems which mainly operate on the physical and physiological level, CSE operates on the level of cognitive functions. Instead of viewing an MMS as decomposable by mechanistic principles, CSE introduces the concept of a cognitive system: an adaptive system which functions using knowledge about itself and the environment in the planning and modification of actions. Operators are generally acknowledged to use a model of the system (machine) with which they work. Similarly, the machine has an image of the operator. The designer of an MMS must recognize this, and strive to obtain a match between the machine's image and the user characteristics on a cognitive level, rather than just on the level of physical functions. This article gives a presentation of what cognitive systems are, and of how CSE can contribute to the design of an MMS, from cognitive task analysis to final evaluation.”
Copyrights may apply
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Mar 19th, 2010
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