Publication statistics
Pub. period:1987-2012
Pub. count:35
Number of co-authors:40
Co-authors
Number of publications with 3 favourite co-authors:
Wendy A. Rogers:24Ralph H. Cullen:3Mark D. Lee:3 Productive colleagues
Arthur D. Fisk's 3 most productive colleagues in number of publications:
Wendy A. Rogers:52Neff Walker:19Anne Collins McLau..:18
“
Knowledge is commonly socially constructed, through collaborative efforts towards shared objectives or by dialogues and challenges brought about by different persons' perspectives.
”
-- G. Salomon (in "Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations")
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Arthur D. Fisk
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Publications by Arthur D. Fisk (bibliography)
Cullen, Ralph H., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2012): The Effects of Automation Reliability and Experience on Attention in a Computer Environment. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 2012 Annual Meeting 2012. pp. 511-515.
“Computer environments are often complex and require operators to work on multiple tasks at once. Diagnostic automation is purported to help by telling the operator when and where to look, but imperfect reliability and the question of experience with the system provide an open question to research. In this study, we asked 60 participants to interact with a multiple-task computer system representative of the demands of work to test whether experience with the automation would change the way participants allocated their attention between the tasks and efficiency in interacting with the system. We found that highly reliable automation provided not only an overall benefit but an improvement with experience. Less reliable automation provided an overall benefit but no additional gains with experience. The reliability of diagnostic automation in computer applications, then, should be designed with consideration for reliability; only at greater levels will experience with the system provide additional benefits.”
© All rights reserved Cullen et al. and/or Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Dan, Chiu Shun, Cullen, Ralph H., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2012): Exploring Strategy Use in a Multiple-Task Environment: Effects of Automation Reliability and Task Properties. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 2012 Annual Meeting 2012. pp. 2123-2127.
“Automated aids are often provided to assist human operators in multitasking, high-workload situations. Introducing automation can reduce task demands and improve human performance. If the automation is not perfectly reliable, operators have to strategically operate the system along with automated aids. As a part of an experiment investigating attention allocation and automation, 60 participants' subjective strategy reports were analyzed to understand how task properties (e.g., frequency, criticality) and automation reliability affect operators' strategy use. Given different levels of automation reliability, participants developed both automation-dependent and automation-independent strategies to accomplish the tasks. Some strategies (i.e., following a pattern) were significantly correlated with overall task performance. Top performers expressed preferences for different strategies compared to worst performers. This study provided insights into how operators naturally develop and use strategies when interacting with automation.”
© All rights reserved Dan et al. and/or Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Smarr, Cory-Ann, Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2011): Dynamic vs. Static: Age-related Differences in Recognizing Emotive Facial Expressions in a Virtual Agent. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 55th Annual Meeting 2011. pp. 1957-1961.
“Technological advances will allow virtual agents to increasingly assist individuals with everyday living tasks. As such, virtual agents will interact with people of all ages and experiences. Facial expressions are often used to facilitate social interaction. However, older and younger adults do not label human (Ruffman et al., 2008) or virtual agent (Beer et al., 2009; 2010) facial expressions in the same way, with older adults commonly mislabeling certain expressions. Dynamic formation, or motion, of facial expression may provide additional facial information potentially making emotions less ambiguous (Bould&Morris, 2008). This study examined how motion affects younger and older adults in recognizing emotion displayed by a virtual agent. Participants viewed videos of the dynamic formation or static pictures of emotive facial expressions. Older adults were found to better recognize static pictures than the dynamic formation of emotions. Older adults had lower recognition rates for anger, fear, happiness, and sadness than younger adults.”
© All rights reserved Smarr et al. and/or HFES
Fausset, Cara Bailey, Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2011): Older Adults' Comprehension of Probabilistic Risk Expressions in a Vaccine Information Statement: A Teach-Back Approach. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 55th Annual Meeting 2011. pp. 1975-1979.
“The probability of a risk can be expressed in various formats such as percentages, frequencies, or words. People must be able to understand these probabilistic risk expressions to make informed decisions about their health. However, research has shown that people, especially older adults, have difficulty comprehending probabilities (e.g., Gigerenzer, Gaissmaier, Kurz-Milcke, Schwartz,&Woloshin, 2007; Kutner, Greenberg,&Baer, 2005; Lipkus, Samsa,&Rimer, 2001). In this study, the relationship between the probability risk format (frequency, percentage, or words) and how older adults described and understood the probabilistic information was examined using a teach-back approach and a recall test. Four females and one male participated; mean age was 73.2 years (SD=5.2). The results suggest that people do attend to probabilistic risk information and that presenting risk probabilities using words or percentages supports comprehension.”
© All rights reserved Fausset et al. and/or HFES
McBride, Sara E., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2010): Do Younger and Older Adults Differentially Depend on an Automated System. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting 2010. pp. 175-179.
“Various factors, including trust, system reliability, and error type have been found to affect how people interact with automated systems. Another variable that is becoming increasingly important is the role of age in human-automation interaction. As automation continues to emerge in numerous domains, including the home, older adults will likely interact with these types of systems to a greater extent than ever before. Therefore, understanding if age-related changes in cognition, such as diminished working memory capacity or processing speed, affect how older adults use automated systems is critical to ensure these systems are designed and implemented effectively. This study examined the role of age in a simulated dual task environment using an automated aid. Younger adults outperformed older adults in both tasks. When the automation was incorrect, younger adults exhibited less dependence than older adults. Further, when older adults verified the automation's suggestion, they took significantly more time to do so than younger adults. Additionally, older adults reported greater trust in the automation and higher workload compared to younger adults.”
© All rights reserved McBride et al. and/or HFES
Poole, Alan B., Caine, Kelly E., Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2010): Errors of Disclosure in Computer Mediated Systems. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting 2010. pp. 512-516.
“People frequently use information and communication technologies such as cell phones and email to mediate the transfer of private information. Often, this information is intended to be shared only with the recipient or recipients, and, in turn, kept from everyone else. However, people sometimes make errors when disclosing private information. These errors can occur when the intended information is sent to an unintended person or persons, when unintended information is sent to the intended person, or a combination of both. Fifteen adults (aged 19-23) were interviewed using the critical incident method to elicit past instances of erroneous disclosure. The interviewer sought to understand the circumstances surrounding incidents of erroneous relays of private information. Participants reported an average of 3.67 (SD = 1.59) instances of erroneous disclosure, or misclosure per person. Most reported errors involved email and other familiar technologies, with various designed-based causes. These findings point towards specific design features common to many information and communication technologies such as predictive text and button proximity that may lead to erroneous disclosure.”
© All rights reserved Poole et al. and/or HFES
O'Brien, Marita A., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2010): UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE IN YOUNGER AND OLDER ADULTS INTERACTIONS WITH A NOVEL TECHNOLOGY. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting 2010. pp. 1827-1831.
“Successful performance with novel technologies may be enhanced if prior knowledge can be used to guide the interaction. However, knowledge alone may be insufficient to minimize age-related differences in technology interactions. The goal of the present study was to examine age-related differences in the use of a novel everyday technology, the Flip video camcorder, when experience with comparable technologies was controlled. Younger adults and older adults with a similar level of general technology experience were video recorded as they completed three tasks while thinking aloud. Comparisons of self-reported prior experience with technologies comparable to the Flip indicated similar, significant levels of experience. In spite of similar experience, younger adults performed significantly faster than older adults on two of the three tasks. Younger adults were also more likely to perform optimally on these tasks. In contrast, older adults were more likely to only partially complete two of the three tasks. Older adults were also more likely to report higher cognitive workload and lower satisfaction with their performance. These findings suggest that designers need detailed assessments of users' knowledge of comparable technologies and proposed design features to mitigate performance differences in a diverse user population.”
© All rights reserved O'Brien et al. and/or HFES
Felipe, Sarah K., Adams, Anne E., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2010): TRAINING NOVICES ON HIERARCHICAL TASK ANALYSIS. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting 2010. pp. 2005-2009.
“Understanding how best to provide training for task analysis remains unspecified. This study examined how different training methods affect knowledge acquisition, focusing on content learned and errors made by novices in the initial phase of learning Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA). Participants were assigned to one of three types of declarative instructions: procedures, decision/actions, and concept map, which were representative of different types of diagrams (matrix, network, hierarchy). After instructions, participants performed task analyses of five different tasks. Questionnaire data (declarative knowledge) and task analyses (procedural knowledge) were coded on five criteria: hierarchical representation, stating high-level goal, stating plan, stating subgoals, and satisfaction criteria. Results indicated that various aspects of the task analyses were influenced more by the nature of the task than the differences in training material at this early stage of learning. Participants recognized the importance of mentioning the high-level goal, redescribing goals into subgoals, and the plan. However, the hierarchical aspect and considering satisfaction criteria were not prevalent in either recall test or the task analyses produced. Participants in the concept map condition did identify a larger number of subgoals, but further studies are needed to understand this effect. This study informs research about various types of diagrams that are useful for training and adds to the literature on training HTA itself.”
© All rights reserved Felipe et al. and/or HFES
Beer, Jenay M., Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2010): Recognizing Emotion in Virtual Agent, Synthetic Human, and Human Facial Expressions. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54th Annual Meeting 2010. pp. 2388-2392.
“A growing interest in the HCI community is the design and development of embodied agents in virtual environments. For virtual environments where social interaction is needed, an agent's facial expression may communicate emotive state to users both young and old. However, younger and older adults differ in how they label human facial expressions (Ruffman et al., 2008). Such possible age-related differences in labeling virtual agent expressions may impact the user's social experience in a virtual environment. The purpose of the current research was to investigate age-related differences in emotion recognition of several on-screen characters of varying degrees of human-likeness. Participants performed a recognition task with three characters demonstrating four basic emotions or neutral. The results indicated age-related differences for all character types. Older adults commonly mislabeled the human and synthetic human emotions of anger, fear, sadness, and neutral. For the virtual agent face, older adults commonly mislabeled the emotions of anger, fear, happiness, and neutral.”
© All rights reserved Beer et al. and/or HFES
Beer, Jenay M., Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2009): Emotion Recognition of Virtual Agents Facial Expressions: The Effects of Age and Emotion Intensity. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 131-135.
“People make determinations about the social characteristics of an agent (e.g., robot or virtual agent) by interpreting social cues displayed by the agent, such as facial expressions. Although a considerable amount of research has been conducted investigating age-related differences in emotion recognition of human faces (e.g., Sullivan,&Ruffman, 2004), the effect of age on emotion identification of virtual agent facial expressions has been largely unexplored. Age-related differences in emotion recognition of facial expressions are an important factor to consider in the design of agents that may assist older adults in a recreational or healthcare setting. The purpose of the current research was to investigate whether age-related differences in facial emotion recognition can extend to emotion-expressive virtual agents. Younger and older adults performed a recognition task with a virtual agent expressing six basic emotions. Larger age-related differences were expected for virtual agents displaying negative emotions, such as anger, sadness, and fear. In fact, the results indicated that older adults showed a decrease in emotion recognition accuracy for a virtual agent's emotions of anger, fear, and happiness.”
© All rights reserved Beer et al. and/or their publisher
Ezer, Neta, Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2009): More than a Servant: Self-Reported Willingness of Younger and Older Adults to having a Robot perform Interactive and Critical Tasks in the Home. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 136-140.
“Many companies are developing robots for the home, including robots specifically for older adults. There is little understanding, however, about the types and characteristics of tasks that younger and older individuals would be willing to let a robot perform. In a mailed questionnaire, participants were asked to indicate their willingness to have a robot perform each of 15 robot tasks that required different levels of interaction with the human owner and different levels of task criticality. The responses of 117 older adults (aged 65-86) and 60 younger adults (aged 18-25) were analyzed. The results indicated that respondents of both groups were more willing to have robots perform infrequent, albeit important, tasks that required little interaction with the human compared to service-type tasks with more required interaction; they were least willing to have a robot perform non-critical tasks requiring extensive interaction between robot and human. Older adults reported more willingness than younger adults in having a robot perform critical tasks in their home. The results suggest that both younger and older individuals are more interested in the benefits that a robot can provide than in their interactive abilities.”
© All rights reserved Ezer et al. and/or their publisher
Fausset, Cara Bailey, Mayer, Andrew K., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2009): Understanding Aging in Place for Older Adults: A Needs Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 521-525.
“A goal of many older adults is to remain in their own homes as they age (Beyond 50.05 Survey, 2005). However, a detailed assessment is lacking of the needs of older adults as they age in place. Using focus groups, twenty-six independently living older adults (mean age 78.8 years) from the Atlanta metropolitan area were asked to describe the tasks they perform to maintain their homes, as well as any difficulties they have performing these tasks. Participants described performing a wide range of tasks and focused primarily on physical difficulties. However, participants also reported solutions to manage these difficulties that fell into three broad categories: "Cessation," "Perseverance," and "Compensation." These categories represent classes of opportunities for interventions that may help older adults remain independent in their homes longer. By understanding the nature of home maintenance problems older adults encounter while aging in place, interventions and redesign efforts can be more effective. These data suggest that interventions should start with answering physical issues.”
© All rights reserved Fausset et al. and/or their publisher
Mitzner, Tracy L., Beer, Jenay M., McBride, Sara E., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2009): Older Adults' Needs for Home Health Care and the Potential for Human Factors Interventions. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 718-722.
“Demand for home health care is expected to increase as more people are living longer and because older adults rely on home health services to a greater extent than any other population (CDC, 2000). This paper needs as well as guidance for potential human factors interventions to reduce medical errors and improve quality of care and independence for older patients. Factors discussed include reducing transition and handoff errors, ensuring proper use of medical devices, managing medication, and optimizing home health settings. The importance of considering the role of normal age analysis is to provide guidance for human factors interventions in home health care.”
© All rights reserved Mitzner et al. and/or their publisher
Cullen, Ralph H., O'Brien, Marita A., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2009): The Persistence of Content Knowledge. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 955-959.
“Research has shown that changes in the way a website works or how it is laid out affects how well people are able to use that website. This study examined how changes in the content and procedures of a website-like system affect the way people recover from not being able to find information in that system. Participants were placed in one of four learning conditions, differing by the content and procedures taught for a simple website-like system. They were then tasked with finding certain pages in that system or systems with different procedures, content, or both. The first test (System B Online Test) showed that participants who had to learn new content were less efficient at finding that content, while participants who had to learn new content and procedures were the only ones slowed down. The second test (System C Online Test) showed that participants who had experienced a previous change in content responded to the new change faster, whereas people who started with inconsistent procedures (as compared to consistent) made fewer errors towards the end.”
© All rights reserved Cullen et al. and/or their publisher
Shorr, Daniel J., Ezer, Neta, Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2009): Comprehension of Warning Symbols by Younger and Older Adults: Effects of Visual Degradation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 1598-1602.
“The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of visual degradation on warning symbol comprehension across warning symbol types and age groups. Twenty-seven black and white ANSI symbols of four different types (prohibition, course of action, information, and hazard symbols) were presented to older (N = 21, M = 73.1) and younger adults (N = 20, M = 21.4) via computer at three”
© All rights reserved Shorr et al. and/or their publisher
Olson, Katherine E., Fisk, Arthur D. and Rogers, Wendy A. (2009): Collaborative Automated Systems: Older Adults' Mental Model Acquisition and Trust in Automation. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd Annual Meeting 2009. pp. 1704-1708.
“Older adults may encounter automated systems in a variety of context such as health care and transportation. Consequently it is important to understand the interactions between system knowledge and reliance. In this ongoing study, we tested 19 older adults on their ability to form an accurate mental model and how they responded to an automated navigation aid that was 70% and 100% reliable. Some older adults were able to form highly accurate mental models and were able to detect when the collaborative automated system was faulty. However, most of the older adults did not form accurate mental models and were likely to inappropriately trust the automation. Training to augment cognition may be helpful for older adults who use collaborative automated systems and have difficulty developing a highly accurate mental model.”
© All rights reserved Olson et al. and/or their publisher
McLaughlin, Anne Collins, Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2009): Using direct and indirect input devices: Attention demands and age-related differences. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 16 (1) p. 2.
“Researchers have suggested that attention is a key moderating variable predicting performance with an input device [Greenstein and Arnaut 1988], although the attention demands of devices have not been directly investigated. We hypothesized that the attentional demands of input devices are intricately linked to whether the device matches the input requirements of the on-screen task. Further, matching task and device should be more important for attentionally reduced groups, such as older adults. Younger and older adults used either a direct (touch screen) or indirect (rotary encoder) input device to perform matched or mismatched input tasks under a spectrum of attention allocation conditions. Input devices required attention -- more so for older adults, especially in a mismatch situation. In addition, task performance was influenced by the match between task demands and input device characteristics. Though both groups benefited from a match between input device and task input requirements, older adults benefited more, and this benefit increased as less attention was available. We offer an a priori method to choose an input device for a task by considering the overlap between device attributes and input requirements. This data should affect design decisions concerning input device selection across age groups and task contexts.”
© All rights reserved McLaughlin et al. and/or ACM Press
Kwasny, Michelle, Caine, Kelly, Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (2008): Privacy and technology: folk definitions and perspectives. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 3291-3296.
“In this paper we present preliminary results from a study of individual differences in privacy beliefs and relate folk definitions of privacy to extant privacy theory. Focus groups were conducted with younger and older adult participants who shared their individual definitions of privacy and engaged in a discussion of privacy across six scenarios. Taken together, Westin's and Altman's theories of privacy accounted for both younger and older adults' ideas about privacy; however, neither theory successfully accounted for findings across all age and gender groups. Whereas males tended to think of privacy in terms of personal needs and convenience, females focused more on privacy in terms of others, respecting privacy rights, and safety. Older adults tended to be more concerned with privacy of space than information privacy. Initial results suggest that designing for commonalities in privacy perceptions among group members is feasible.”
© All rights reserved Kwasny et al. and/or ACM Press
Cooper, Brian P. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1994): Age Similarities in Complex Memory Search: An Extension of Dual Process Theory. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 165-169.
“Understanding age-related similarities and differences in development of cognitive skill is important as it can inform theories of cognitive aging as well as serve the pragmatic value of informing those individuals who are developing age-related interventions for numerous activities of daily living. We investigated both the performance and learning of skilled memory search, a task that has shown age-related similarity in performance if sufficient consistent practice is provided, to determine if training guidelines for this class of processing activities is applicable to both young and old adults. Old and young adults received memory search training, and then the participants were transferred to untrained exemplars of the trained memory set categories. The results suggest that both young and old adults are, at least to some extent, learning at the semantic-category level. This study provides additional evidence that training guidelines derived from an automatic and controlled processing framework can be applied to an older adult population in tasks which have memory search components.”
© All rights reserved Cooper and Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Walker, Neff, Fisk, Arthur D., Phipps, Donita and Kirlik, Alex (1994): Training Perceptual-Rule Based Skills. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting 1994. pp. 1178-1182.
“The results of an experiment are discussed that address how best to train perceptual-rule based skills within a domain where rules correlate to perceptual aspects of a dynamic evolving environment. Participants performed the role of football quarterback where the object of the task was to learn to identify the correct pass receiver in a simulated football system. The correct receiver could always be specified by a set of rules or subtle perceptual cues. Subjects were assigned to one of four training groups which were constructed by complete crossing of rule versus no rule learning and visual enhancement training versus no visual enhancement training. After training trials all subjects transferred to new plays in which new rules or perceptual cues were required. Transfer performance was superior for the participants who received the visually enhanced training. These results are discussed in light of theories of part-task training.”
© All rights reserved Walker et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Cooper, Brian P., Lee, Mark D., Goska, Robert E., Anderson, Marjo M., Gay, Jr. Paul E., Fickes, Lynne Ann and Fisk, Arthur D. (1992): Age-Related Effects in Consistent Memory Search: Performance is the Same but What about Learning?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 146-150.
“Two experiments were conducted to investigate the mechanisms which underlie the learning in consistently mapped (CM) memory search. In Experiment 1, old and young adults were trained in both CM and variably mapped (VM) category search. The training results replicate previous findings by Fisk and Rogers (1991). Even though older adults are initially at a disadvantage relative to young adults, the comparison times of young and old adults are near zero after CM training. For VM, older adults remain at a disadvantage relative to younger adults, even after extensive training. A full reversal manipulation was implemented in Experiment 2 to investigate the learning in memory search. Initially, the young subjects were less affected by the full reversal condition compared to the performance of the older adults. However, older subjects quickly recovered and both young and old were performing at trained CM levels within 60 trials of additional practice. These results suggest: (a) attention is not being trained in CM memory search; (b) automatic category activation does not contribute much, if at all, to the performance improvement in memory search; and (c) age-invariant learning mechanisms account for performance improvement in CM memory search.”
© All rights reserved Cooper et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Corso, Gregory M., Hodge, Kevin A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1992): Learning in Consistent Search-Detection Tasks: Type of Search (Memory vs. Visual) Determines Type of Learning. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992. pp. 1306-1310.
“The theoretical and practical importance of search paradigms has been well established. This experiment was designed to extend understanding of learning processes in search tasks. Subjects trained under memory, visual, or hybrid memory/visual search conditions and then either transferred to a different search condition (e.g., train on memory, transfer to visual search) or served as controls (e.g., train on memory, transfer to memory search). Asymmetrical transfer was observed. These results have implications for current theories of attention as well as applicability in training situations.”
© All rights reserved Corso et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Lee, Mark D., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1991): Contextual Change and Skill Acquisition in Visual Search: Does the Rate of Change Affect Performance?. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991. pp. 1377-1381.
“The present investigation examined the effects of training context on the development of a skill in a semantic category visual search task. Thirty-two subjects were trained in a visual search task which allowed the separate examination of feature learning and attention strengthening. Subjects were trained in a Consistently Mapped (CM) condition which allowed both feature learning and attention strengthening, "Attenuated Strength" search conditions which allowed only feature learning, and a Variably Mapped (VM) condition which allowed neither feature learning or attention strengthening. The present experiment also examined the temporal characteristics of feature learning by manipulating the training context which was defined as the number of trials in a row that a particular search condition appeared. There were four different training contexts used (1, 5, 10, and 50) and eight subjects were assigned to each. Each subject performed 11,000 training trials. Analysis of the reaction time (RT) data indicated that within each training context, RT was fastest for the CM condition, intermediate for the Attenuated Strength conditions, and slowest for the VM condition. The results also suggest that 10 trials were sufficient for feature learning to occur. Furthermore, while there was evidence of attention strengthening in the CM condition there was no evidence of attention strengthening in the Attenuated Strength conditions. For inconsistent tasks that allow feature learning, the rate at which the context changes is a critical variable in determining final task performance.”
© All rights reserved Lee et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Rogers, Wendy A., Fisk, Arthur D., Giambra, Leonard M. and Rosenberg, Edwin H. (1990): Identifying the Learning Capabilities of Older Adults: Associative and Priority Learning. In: D., Woods, and E., Roth, (eds.) Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting 1990, Santa Monica, USA. pp. 173-177.
Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1989): Arithmetic Stroop Interference as a Function of Age: Maintenance and Modification of Automatic Processes. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting 1989. pp. 169-173.
“This experiment investigated whether well-learned "automatic" processes remain stable as a function of age, as well as whether the ability to modify automatic processes is disrupted for older adults. We used an arithmetic "Stroop" task. Nineteen young (mean 22) and 19 old adults (mean 75) participated in three sessions for a total of 450 trails. The young subjects had faster verification times, overall, than the old adults. Both young and old subjects showed significant Stroop interference. These results support the hypothesis that automatic processes, in this case access of addition and multiplication tables, are maintained for old adults. Furthermore, both groups reduced their RT with practice. For the young adults, there was a decrease in interference with practice suggesting that they were learning to inhibit the automatic process of performing the arithmetical operation. However, the old adults showed no significant decrease in interference, which implies that they were impaired in their ability to inhibit automatic processes, even when those processes interfered with performance. Theoretical and practical training implications are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Rogers and Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Lee, Mark D., Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1989): Transfer of Automatic Component Processes to Compatible, Incompatible, and Conflict Situations: Issues for Retraining. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting 1989. pp. 1243-1247.
“An experiment was conducted to examine the potential negative effects of automatic task components in situations requiring re-use or inhibition of those components. Participants trained on a category search task for 8,4OO trials in three consistent (CM) and one varied mapping (VM) conditions. Following training, 2,352 trials were completed in seven transfer conditions. Results suggest that skill transfers to similar task situations. However, the data demonstrate that if the transfer situations are incompatible or prior learning must be inhibited, performance is disrupted. Although each condition improved after 336 transfer trials, performance did not reach pre-transfer levels in incompatible or inhibited conditions. The present data are useful for predicting transfer performance when skill components are trained to automaticity using a part-task methodology.”
© All rights reserved Lee et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Hodge, Kevin A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1989): Transfer of Training as a Function of Semantic Relatedness in a Category Search Task. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting 1989. pp. 1253-1257.
“It has been demonstrated that highly trained, automatic processes can transfer across certain memory search tasks; the degree to which these processes may be exhibited in visual search tasks has not been established, however. We examined this issue by testing the transfer of highly trained, automatized components of a semantic category, visual search task to stimulus situations of varying degrees of relatedness. We developed an adaptive version of the multiple-frame detection task (Schneider and Shiffrin, 1977) in order to test performance at the limits of visual search capacity. During training, frame-time was the dependent variable and was determined by each participant's performance ability. Each received 6,090 trials on exemplars from a single semantic category. Transfer consisted of two sessions, 330 trials per session. Transfer performance reveals that participants became highly proficient at the”
© All rights reserved Hodge and Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Hodge, Kevin A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1989): Toward an Understanding of Skill Decay: Retention of Automatic Component Processes. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting 1989. pp. 1258-1262.
“This investigation addresses fundamental aspects of the reliability and stability of both basic cognitive functions and automatic processing components of skills. In the present experiment we investigated the pattern of component skill retention (or decay) exhibited after training on automatic and controlled processing task components. Participants were trained on a hybrid memory/visual, semantic-category search task and received low (720 trials, moderate (2,160 trials) and high (4,320 trials) amounts of consistently mapped (CM) training plus variable mapped (VM) training (720 trials). Retention was tested at five time interval: one day, 30 days, 90 days, 180 days, and 365 days following training. Critical data for this investigation involve the pattern of performance decay across conditions and retention intervals. After an initial decline in the first 30 days following training, performance in CM conditions remained stable from Day 30 to Day 365. VM performance was erratic. The present research has practical and theoretical significance for elucidation of the mechanisms underlying long-term retention of automatic processes. Specification of these mechanisms is essential in the attempt to predict performance after a period of inactivity, to determine what constitutes appropriate refresher training, and to designate which skill components to emphasize during training.”
© All rights reserved Hodge and Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1988): Age-Related Effects of Stimulus-Specific Context on Perceptual Learning. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 198-202.
“The focus of the present study was the investigation of age-related differences in perceptual learning under conditions of consistent mapping (CM), varied mapping (VM), and context-specific training. Context-specific training involved conditions where specific target and distract sets were paired consistently within a condition but were inconsistent across conditions. Eight young (mean age 25) and eight old (mean age 67) subjects participated for 8000 trials of training and 3200 trials of various transfer conditions. The transfer conditions were designed to ascertain the extent to which the subjects had automatized their performance in each of the training conditions. The training results yielded significant differences between young and old adults only under CM training. Performance in the context conditions for young adults mimicked that of the old subjects in the CM condition. The training results suggest that manipulations which disrupt the development of attention-calling strength of stimuli lead to equivalent performance for young and old adults. The transfer results provide similar information. It is proposed that the ability to "strengthen" target information is disrupted in older adults. Based on our previous and the present findings, processing principles are presented which outline important differential considerations for training young and/or older adults.”
© All rights reserved Rogers and Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Fisk, Arthur D. and Eggemeier, F. Thomas (1988): Application of Automatic/Controlled Processing Theory to Training Tactical Command and Control Skills: 1. Background and Task Analytic Methodology. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1227-1231.
“In this paper we briefly highlight relevant laboratory research that provided the theoretical and empirical underpinnings for the development of a task-analytic training methodology. The actual task-analytic methodology, developed to decompose tasks performed to support tactical command and control (C{squared}), air-weapons controller missions, is briefly discussed. The present paper provides the necessary background for the actual application of the methodology. The details of the direct application are presented in a comparison paper by Eggemeier, Fisk, Robbins, and Lawless (1988).”
© All rights reserved Fisk and Eggemeier and/or Human Factors Society
Eggemeier, F. Thomas, Fisk, Arthur D., Robbins, Richard J. and Lawless, Michael T. (1988): Application of Automatic/Controlled Processing Theory to Training Tactical Command and Control Skills: II. Evaluation of a Task Analytic Methodology. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting 1988. pp. 1232-1236.
“Automatic/controlled processing theory maintains that the consistent components of complex skills improve most substantially with training, and that part-task training (PTT) programs should therefore focus on the consistent elements of skilled performance. As an initial step in applying automatic processing principles to PTT, Fisk and Eggemeier (1988) developed a task analytic methodology to identify the consistent components of complex skills. This paper describes the application of the methodology to operator skills required in a complex tactical command and control (C{squared}) system. The results indicate that the methodology can be used to identify a variety of consistent components of complex performance. Possible applications of PTT and issues for future training research are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Eggemeier et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Fisk, Arthur D. (1987): High Performance Cognitive Skill Acquisition: Perceptual/Rule Learning. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 652-656.
“Two experiments examined the effects of inter-component consistency on skill acquisition in a class of cognitive demanding tasks requiring rapid integration of information as well as rapid application of rules. The role of consistency of external stimulus-to-rule linkage in facilitating the learning and performing of a rule-based classification task was examined. The present data have implications for the understanding and training of skilled problem solving tasks. When training allows the development of automatization of subcomponents of the problem solving activity, the chance of memory overload is reduced. The present data point to one such trainable subcomponent clearly present in most real-world problem solving situations -- the perceptual and rule-based components.”
© All rights reserved Fisk and/or Human Factors Society
Fisk, Arthur D. and Eboch, Mark M. (1987): Applications of Automatic/Control Processing Theory to Complex Tasks: An Encouraging Look. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 674-678.
“This paper briefly outlines experiments that point to where and how automatic/control processing theory can be applied to complex training simulations of "real world" tasks. In all of these complex tasks, subjects could not simply focus in on a single stimulus and successfully perform the task. Rather, subjects were required to process combinations of stimuli for successful task completion. The pattern of data from these complex tasks is consistent with previous data collected using simple, stimulus-specific tasks. This similarity between results of previous research examining automatic/control processing and the present data points to the validity of suggesting the need for consistent mapping training of patterns of information in complex tasks. Preliminary applications of automatic/control processing theory to instructional design and to cartography are discussed.”
© All rights reserved Fisk and Eboch and/or Human Factors Society
Casey, Betty Jo, Rogers, Wendy A. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1987): Cognitive Skill Acquisition: A Developmental Approach. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 857-861.
“Twenty-eight studies from five different categories of tasks were examined for age-dependent training effects across the ages of seven to ninety. Four general patterns of results emerged from these studies. First, sensorimotor differences were found across the age groups. Second, although there were definite age differences, practice effects were evident for all ages. Third, ability-dependent differences within age groups were observed. These differences may be eliminated with consistent training. Finally, performance on certain task components, primarily those utilizing well-developed automatic processes, remained relatively stable across the life span. These patterns of performance are interpreted from a "connectionist" viewpoint and explained in terms of priority and associative mechanisms of learning.”
© All rights reserved Casey et al. and/or Human Factors Society
Oransky, Natalie A., Skedsvold, Paula R. and Fisk, Arthur D. (1987): The Interaction of Bottom-Up and Top-Down Consistency in the Development of Skills. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting 1987. pp. 1044-1048.
“An experiment is reported that was conducted to examine the possible value of high-order consistency in skill development. Subjects made judgments about ordinal properties of stimuli. The presence or absence of consistency was defined by the type of decision -- consistent or varied decisions. In both decision conditions the stimuli were inconsistent at the individual stimulus level; however, subjects making consistent decisions concerning the stimuli could make use of consistent relationships among the stimuli. Subjects in the consistent decision were faster and more accurate at identifying target stimuli when compared with the inconsistent decision subjects. In addition to the quantitative differences, subjects receiving consistent decision training were qualitatively different in performance when compared to the inconsistent decision group. The pattern of results from the present experiment is quite consistent with previous memory/visual search investigations. The experiment supports the suggestion that local level (or stimulus based) consistency is not necessary for automatic process development if task relevant high-order (or global) consistency can be identified and used by the trainees.”
© All rights reserved Oransky et al. and/or Human Factors Society
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