Andrew HowesPh.D.
Personal Homepage:
personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/howesa/
Current place of employment:
The University of Manchester Professor at the University of Manchester
Publications by Andrew Howes (bibliography)
» 2009 «
Binder, Jens, Howes, Andrew and Sutcliffe, Alistair (2009): The problem of conflicting social spheres: effects of network structure on experienced tension in social network sites. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 965-974. Available online
“We propose that a fundamental property of human psychology, the need to maintain independent social spheres, imposes constraints on the use of social network sites (SNS). We particularly focus on the consequences of visibility of communications across social spheres, and we hypothesize that technological features of SNS may bring social spheres in conflict, thus leading to increased levels of online social tension. A survey study among Facebook users was conducted to test this hypothesis. Results showed that diversity of the Facebook network predicted online tension. Moreover, the number of kin in a Facebook network was a crucial component because it predicted online tension whereas number of work and social contacts did not. Further, evidence was found to support the idea that tension might impose an upper limit on network size. We conclude with a discussion of these findings and describe how they support the thrust of recent modifications to SNS designs.”
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Brumby, Duncan P., Salvucci, Dario D. and Howes, Andrew (2009): Focus on driving: how cognitive constraints shape the adaptation of strategy when dialing while driving. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 1629-1638. Available online
“We investigate how people adapt their strategy for interleaving multiple concurrent tasks to varying objectives. A study was conducted in which participants drove a simulated vehicle and occasionally dialed a telephone number on a mobile phone. Experimental instructions and feedback encouraged participants to focus on either driving or dialing. Results show that participants adapted their task interleaving strategies to meet the required task objective, but in a manner that was nonetheless intricately shaped by internal psychological constraints. In particular, participants tended to steer in between dialing chunks of digits even when extreme vehicle drift implied that more reactive strategies would have generated better lane keeping. To better understand why drivers interleaved tasks at chunk boundaries, a modeling analysis was conducted to derive performance predictions for a range of dialing strategies. The analysis supported the idea that interleaving at chunk boundaries efficiently traded the time given up to dialing with the maintenance of a central lane position. We discuss the implications of this work in terms of contributions to understanding how cognitive constraints shape strategy adaptations in dynamic multitask environments.”
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» 2008 «
Tseng, Yuan-Chi and Howes, Andrew (2008): The adaptation of visual search strategy to expected information gain. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 1075-1084. Available online
“An important question for HCI is to understand how and why visual search strategy is adapted to the demands imposed by the task of searching the results of a search engine. There is emerging evidence that a key part of the answer concerns the expected information gain of each of the set of available information gathering actions. We build on previous research to show that people are acutely sensitive to differences in the spacing and in the number of items returned by the search engine. These factors cause shifts in the efficiency of the available information gathering actions. We focus on an image browsing task, and show that, as a consequence of changes to the efficiency of available actions, people make small but significant changes to eye-movement strategy.”
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Waldron, Samuel M., Patrick, John, Duggan, Geoffrey B., Banbury, Simon and Howes, Andrew (2008): Designing information fusion for the encoding of visual-spatial information. In Ergonomics, 51 pp. 775-797
“In a simulated aircraft navigation task, a fusion technique known as triangulation
was used to improve the accuracy and onscreen availability of location information
from two separate radars. Three experiments investigated whether the reduced
cognitive processing required to extract information from the fused environment led
to impoverished retention of visual–spatial information. Experienced pilots and
students completed various simulated flight missions and were required to make a
number of location estimates. Following a retention interval, memory for locations
was assessed. Experiment 1 demonstrated, in an applied setting, that the retention of
fused information was problematic and Experiment 2 replicated this finding
under laboratory conditions. Experiment 3 successfully improved the retention of
fused information by limiting its availability within the interface, which it is argued,
shifted participants’ strategies from over-reliance on the display as an external
memory source to more memory-dependent interaction. These results are discussed
within the context of intelligent interface design and effective human–machine
interaction.
”
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Brumby, Duncan P. and Howes, Andrew (2008): Strategies for Guiding Interactive Search: An Empirical Investigation Into the Consequences of Label Relevance for Assessment and Selection. In Human-Computer Interaction, 23 (1) pp. 1-46
“When searching a novel Web page, people often estimate the likelihood that labeled links on the page will lead to their goal. A rational analysis of this activity suggests that people should adjust their estimate of the likelihood that any one item will lead to the goal in a manner that is sensitive to the context provided by the likelihoods that other items on the page will lead to the goal. Two experiments were designed to provide evidence to discriminate between this account and others found in the literature (e.g., satisficing and assess-all accounts). The experiments systematically manipulated the relevance of the distractor items and the location of the target item on the page. The results showed that (a) a high-value item was more likely to be selected when it was first encountered if the relevance of competing distractors was relatively low and (b) more items were assessed prior to selection when the distractors were of greater semantic relevance to the goal. The location manipulation showed that if more distractors were assessed prior to the target item, then the relevance of the distractors had a greater influence on the decision as to whether to select the target immediately. These results suggest that decisions as to when to select an item from the page are sensitive to the context provided by the likelihoods of all of the items so far assessed and not just to the most recent item. The findings are therefore inconsistent with both satisficing and assess-all accounts of interactive search.”
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» 2007 «
Brumby, Duncan P., Howes, Andrew and Salvucci, Dario D. (2007): A cognitive constraint model of dual-task trade-offs in a highly dynamic driving task. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2007 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2007. pp. 233-242. Available online
“The paper describes an approach to modeling the strategic variations in performing secondary tasks while driving. In contrast to previous efforts that are based on simulation of a cognitive architecture interacting with a task environment, we take an approach that develops a cognitive constraint model of the interaction between the driver and the task environment in order to make inferences about dual-task performance. Analyses of driving performance data reveal that a set of simple equations can be used to accurately model changes in the lateral position of the vehicle within the lane. The model quantifies how the vehicle's deviation from lane center increases during periods of inattention, and how the vehicle returns to lane center during periods of active steering. We demonstrate the benefits of the approach by modeling the dialing of a cellular phone while driving, where drivers balance the speed in performing the dial task with accuracy (or safety) in keeping the vehicle centered in the roadway. In particular, we show how understanding, rather than simulating, the constraints imposed by the task environment can help to explain the costs and benefits of a range of strategies for interleaving dialing and steering. We show how particular strategies are sensitive to a combination of internal constraints (including switch costs) and the trade-off between the amount of time allocated to secondary task and the risk of extreme lane deviation.”
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Brumby, Duncan P., Salvucci, Dario D. and Howes, Andrew (2007): An Empirical Investigation into Dual-Task Trade-offs while Driving and Dialing. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 3. Available online
“Engaging in a secondary task, such as dialing a cell phone, while driving a car has been found to have a deleterious effect on driver performance. A point often overlooked though is that people can potentially vary the extent to which these two tasks are interleaved (i.e., attention can be returned to driving more or less often while dialing). To investigate this idea of strategic variability in multitasking behavior, an experiment was conducted in a driving simulator in which participants were instructed to focus on dialing as quickly as possible or on steering as safely as possible. It was found that participants drove more safely when encouraged to do so. However, driving safely necessarily brought about an increase in the total time to complete the dialing task because of frequent task interleaving. In contrast, there was a significant increase in the lateral deviation of the car from the lane centre when participants were encouraged to complete the dialing task as quickly as possible. These results suggest that contrary to existing advice, the total time that the driver is distracted is less important to safety than the strategy used for interleaving secondary and primary tasks. In particular, there may be value in designing mobile devices that facilitate short bursts of interaction for in-car use because allowing drivers to make additional glances back to the road while actively working on a concurrent secondary task might help to elevate some of the effects of distracted driving.”
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» 2006 «
Eng, Katherine, Lewis, Richard L., Tollinger, Irene, Chu, Alina, Howes, Andrew and Vera, Alonso H. (2006): Generating automated predictions of behavior strategically adapted to specific performance objectives. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2006. pp. 621-630. Available online
“It has been well established in Cognitive Psychology that humans are able to strategically adapt performance, even highly skilled performance, to meet explicit task goals such as being accurate (rather than fast). This paper describes a new capability for generating multiple human performance predictions from a single task specification as a function of different performance objective functions. As a demonstration of this capability, the Cognitive Constraint Modeling approach was used to develop models for several tasks across two interfaces from the aviation domain. Performance objectives are explicitly declared as part of the model, and the CORE (Constraint-based Optimal Reasoning Engine) architecture itself formally derives the detailed strategies that are maximally adapted to these objectives. The models are analyzed for emergent strategic variation, comparing those optimized for task time with those optimized for working memory load. The approach has potential application in user interface and procedure design.”
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» 2005 «
Tollinger, Irene, Lewis, Richard L., McCurdy, Michael, Tollinger, Preston, Vera, Alonso H., Howes, Andrew and Pelton, Laura (2005): Supporting efficient development of cognitive models at multiple skill levels: exploring recent advances in constraint-based modeling. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 411-420. Available online
“This paper presents X-PRT, a new cognitive modeling tool supporting activities ranging from interface design to basic cognitive research. X-PRT provides a graphical model development environment for the CORE constraint-based cognitive modeling engine [7,13,21]. X-PRT comprises a novel feature set: (a) it supports the automatic generation of predictive models at multiple skill levels from a single task-specification, (b) it supports a comprehensive set of modeling activities, and (c) it supports compositional reuse of existing cognitive/perceptual/motor skills by transforming high-level, hierarchical task descriptions into detailed performance predictions. Task hierarchies play a central role in X-PRT, serving as the organizing construct for task knowledge, the locus for compositionality, and the cognitive structures over which the learning theory is predicated. Empirical evidence supports the role of task hierarchies in routine skill acquisition.”
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» 2004 «
Vera, Alonso H., Howes, Andrew, McCurdy, Michael and Lewis, Richard L. (2004): A constraint satisfaction approach to predicting skilled interactive cognition. In: Dykstra-Erickson, Elizabeth and Tscheligi, Manfred (eds.) Proceedings of ACM CHI 2004 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 24-29, 2004, Vienna, Austria. pp. 121-128. Available online
“In this paper we report a new approach to generating predictions about skilled interactive cognition. The approach, which we call Cognitive Constraint Modeling, takes as input a description of the constraints on a task environment, on user strategies, and on the human cognitive architecture and generates as output a prediction of the time course of interaction. In the Cognitive Constraint Models that we have built this is achieved by encoding the assumptions inherent in CPM-GOMS as a set of constraints and reasoning about them using finite domain constraint satisfaction.”
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» 2003 «
Dix, Alan J., Howes, Andrew and Xiao, Dongbo (2003): Post-web cognition: evolving knowledge strategies for global information environments. In International Journal of Web Engineering Technology, 1 (1) pp. 112-126
» 2001 «
Payne, Stephen J., Howes, Andrew and Reader, William R. (2001): Adaptively distributing cognition: a decision-making perspective on human-computer interaction. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 20 (5) pp. 339-346
“Two important phenomena in human-computer interaction (HCI) are considered: the reliance on external information rather than memory, and the interleaving of planning and action. These phenomena are important, it is argued, because they challenge some particular cognitive models. However, we reject those views, influential in the HCI literature, that phenomena like these require radically new conceptions of cognition or behaviour. It is shown that the phenomena are not universal laws of behaviour, but that instead people decide how much to remember and how much to plan according to a consideration of the costs and benefits of different strategies. Thus the classical cognitive conception of humans as adaptive decision makers is vital for a deep understanding of HCI.”
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» 2000 «
Miles, Gareth E., Howes, Andrew and Davies, Anthony (2000): A Framework for Understanding Human Factors in Web-Based Electronic Commerce. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 52 (1) pp. 131-163
“The World Wide Web and email are used increasingly for purchasing and selling products. The use of the internet for these functions represents a significant departure from the standard range of information retrieval and communication tasks for which it has most often been used. Electronic commerce should not be assumed to be information retrieval, it is a separate task-domain, and the software systems that support it should be designed from the perspective of its goals and constraints. At present there are many different approaches to the problem of how to support seller and buyer goals using the internet. They range from standard, hierarchically arranged, hyperlink pages to "electronic sales assistants", and from text-based pages to 3D virtual environments. In this paper, we briefly introduce the electronic commerce task from the perspective of the buyer, and then review and analyse the technologies. A framework is then proposed to describe the design dimensions of electronic commerce. We illustrate how this framework may be used to generate additional, hypothetical technologies that may be worth further exploration.”
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Ruddle, Roy A., Howes, Andrew, Payne, Stephen J. and Jones, Dylan M. (2000): The Effects of Hyperlinks on Navigation in Virtual Environments. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53 (4) pp. 551-581
“Hyperlinks introduce discontinuities of movement to 3-D virtual environments (VEs). Nine independent attributes of hyperlinks are defined and their likely effects on navigation in VEs are discussed. Four experiments are described in which participants repeatedly navigated VEs that were either conventional (i.e. obeyed the laws of Euclidean space), or contained hyperlinks. Participants learned spatial knowledge slowly in both types of environment, echoing the findings of previous studies that used conventional VEs. The detrimental effects on participants' spatial knowledge of using hyperlinks for movement were reduced when a time-delay was introduced, but participants still developed less accurate knowledge than they did in the conventional VEs. Visual continuity had a greater influence on participants' rate of learning than continuity of movement, and participants were able to exploit hyperlinks that connected together disparate regions of a VE to reduce travel time.”
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» 1997 «
Howes, Andrew and Young, Richard M. (1997): The Role of Cognitive Architecture in Modeling the User: Soar's Learning Mechanism. In Human-Computer Interaction, 12 (4) pp. 311-343
“What is the role of a cognitive architecture in shaping a model built within it? Compared with a model written in a programming language, the cognitive architecture offers theoretical constraints. These constraints can be "soft," in that some ways of constructing a model are facilitated and others made more difficult, or they can be "hard," in that certain aspects of a model are enforced and others ruled out. We illustrate a variety of these possibilities. In the case of Soar, its learning mechanism is sufficiently constraining that it imposes hard constraints on models constructed within it. We describe how one of these hard constraints deriving from Soar's learning mechanism ensures that models constructed within Soar must learn a display-based skill and, other things being equal, must find display-based devices easier to learn than keyboard-based devices. We discuss the relation between architecture and model in terms of the degree to which a model is "compliant" with the constraints set by the architecture. Although doubts are sometimes expressed as to whether cognitive architectures have any empirical consequences for user modeling, our analysis shows that they do. Architectures play their part by imposing theoretical constraints on the models constructed within them, and the extent to which the influence of the architecture shows through in the model's behavior depends on the compliancy of the model.”
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» 1996 «
Rieman, John, Young, Richard M. and Howes, Andrew (1996): A Dual-Space Model of Iteratively Deepening Exploratory Learning. In International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 44 (6) pp. 743-775
“When users of interactive computers must work with new software without formal training, they rely on strategies for "exploratory learning". These include trial and error, asking for help from other users, and looking for information in printed and on-line documentation. This paper describes a cognitive model of exploratory learning, which covers both trial-and-error and instruction-taking activities. The model, implemented in Soar, is grounded in empirical data of subjects in a task-oriented, trial-and-error exploratory learning situation. A key empirical finding reflected in the model is the repeated scanning of a subset of the available menu items, with increased attention to items on each successive scan. This is explained in terms of dual search spaces, the external interface and the user's internal knowledge, both of which must be tentatively explored with attention to changing costs and benefits. The model implements this dual-space search by alternating between external scanning and internal comprehension, a strategy that gradually shifts its focus to a potentially productive route through an interface. Ways in which interfaces might be designed to capitalize on this behaviour are suggested. The research demonstrates how cognitive modelling can describe behaviour of the kind discussed by theories of "situated cognition".”
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Howes, Andrew and Young, Richard M. (1996): Learning Consistent, Interactive, and Meaningful Task-Action Mappings: A Computational Model. In Cognitive Science, 20 (3) pp. 301-356
» 1994 «
Howes, Andrew (1994): A Model of the Acquisition of Menu Knowledge by Exploration. In: Adelson, Beth, Dumais, Susan and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 94 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 24-28, 1994, Boston, Massachusetts. pp. 445-451. Available online
“This paper reports a mechanism that learns how to use a menu structure by exploration. The model, called Ayn, starts without any knowledge of the menus but when given a goal, explores and tries out options until the goal has been achieved. During this process it constructs a long-term, recognition-oriented, memory of its behavior so that on future occasions it will be able to achieve the same goal without exploration. The mechanism captures three aspects of human behaviour: it learns whilst interacting with the device, it speeds up with practice, and it acquires display-based knowledge.”
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» 1992 «
Payne, Stephen J. and Howes, Andrew (1992): A Task-Action Trace for Exploratory Learners. In Behaviour and Information Technology, 11 (2) pp. 63-70
“We motivate and describe the design of a tool for exploratory learners. A task-action trace displays a history of user actions that collapses into verbal descriptions of task accomplishments, derived from a task-action grammar analysis of the interface. Previous tasks, and the actions through which the user achieved them, remain available for browsing; the display of actions shows those that were strictly necessary. We describe the implementation of such a tool for a simulation of the RATES line-diagnosis system. Preliminary empirical evaluation suggests that some users find the trace sufficiently helpful to interact with it repeatedly during the first 4 h of learning.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Howes, Andrew and Hill, Elain (1992): Conceptual Instructions Derived from an Analysis of Device Models. In International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 4 (1) pp. 35-57
“This article advances a heuristic for conceptual instruction, based on the yoked-state space (YSS) hypothesis about the contents of users' device models (Payne, 1987a; Payne, Squibb, & Howes, 1990). The YSS hypothesis suggests that users of a system need to understand the system's representation of the task domain. Accordingly, conceptual instructions should express the mapping from device objects onto goal-space objects, especially those aspects that are not visible at the user interface. Such instructions are developed for a menu-driven computer system based on the RATES system for performing remote diagnosis of telephone lines. A simple comparative experiment shows that novices who receive these instructions learn to use RATES more quickly than novices who receive only background instruction and a brief procedural manual. These results increase empirical support for the YSS hypothesis, and, at the same time, suggest a heuristic for the design of conceptual instructions.”
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» 1991 «
Howes, Andrew and Young, Richard M. (1991): Predicting the Learnability of Task-Action Mappings. In: Robertson, Scott P., Olson, Gary M. and Olson, Judith S. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 91 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 28 - June 5, 1991, New Orleans, Louisiana. pp. 113-118. Available online
“Programmable User Models (PUMs) are tools based on psychological theory that enable interface designers to predict the usability of a proposed design. This paper presents a variant in which the PUM, implemented in Soar and incorporating the constraints of Display-based Task-Action Grammars, learns the task-action mapping by being guided by the designer during performance. We show that the more consistent and interactive the interface, the easier it is for the designer to teach the PUM the necessary task-action mapping.”
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» 1990 «
Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Semantic Analysis During Exploratory Learning. In: Carrasco, Jane and Whiteside, John (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 90 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference 1990, Seattle, Washington,USA. pp. 399-405.
“This paper addresses the problem of how a novice computer user, engaged in exploratory learning, accounts for the behaviour of the device. Exploratory learning is the norm for many users who encounter computers in the work place. Exploratory learners must acquire methods from a suboptimal stream of task directed behaviour and its observable effects. A candidate model of analysis, EXPL is taken as the baseline for the development of a new model, called Explor, which employs semantic knowledge of the lexical items used in the interface to relate user actions to system responses. The strengths and weaknesses of Explor are illustrated and discussed.”
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Payne, Stephen J., Squibb, Helen R. and Howes, Andrew (1990): The Nature of Device Models: The Yoked State Space Hypothesis and Some Experiments with Text Editors. In Human-Computer Interaction, 5 (4) pp. 415-444
“To construct a conceptual model of a device, the user must conceptualize the device's representation of the task domain. This knowledge can be represented by three components: a device-based problem space, which specifies the ontology of the device in terms of the objects that can be manipulated and their interrelations, plus the operators that perform the manipulations; a goal space, which represents the objects in terms of which user's goals are expressed; and a semantic mapping, which determines how goal space objects are represented in the device space. The yoked state space (YSS) model allows an important distinction concerning the mental representation of procedures. If a step in a procedure specifies a transformation of the user's device space, then it has an autonomous meaning for the user, independent of its role in the sequence or method. The device space provides a figurative account of the operator. However, some operators do not affect the minimal device space, and their only meaning for the user derives from their role in a method: The method affords an operational account of the operator. Figurative accounts can be constructed from operational accounts only by elaborating the device space with new concepts. The YSS is illustrated through a simple description of a device model for a cut-and-paste text editor. Three experiments addressed the claims of this model. The first experiment used a sorting paradigm to show that users do acquire the novel device space concept of a string of adjacent characters (including space and return). The second and third experiments asked novices to make inferences about text editor behavior on the basis of simple demonstrations. They showed that (a) the availability of the string concept is critically dependent on the details of the interface design, (b) figurative accounts of the copy operation afford more efficient methods and may be promoted by appropriate names for procedure steps, and (c) a conceptual model may transfer from one device to another. Together, the three experiments supported the YSS hypothesis.”
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Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Display-Based Competence: Towards User Models for Menu-Driven Interfaces. In International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 33 (6) pp. 637-655
“This paper discusses the critical role played by aspects of the display in the use of many computer systems, especially those driven by menus. We outline a formal model of "display-based competence" by extending the Task-Action Grammar notation (Payne & Green, 1986). The model, D-TAG (for display-oriented task-action grammar) is illustrated with examples for the well-known Macintosh desk-top interface, and from a more deeply-nested menu interface to a device used for the remote testing of telephone lines (RATES). D-TAG exploits two extensions of TAG to address important aspects of interface consistency. The most important extension uses a featural description of the display to capture the role of the display in structuring task-action mappings; the second describes the "side-effects" of a task, i.e. those effects not described by the semantic attributes of a task. By embedding these extensions within the organizing framework of TAG's feature-grammar, we are able to develop descriptions of interfaces which highlight aspects of (display) design that are outside the scope of other formal user models.”
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Young, Richard M., Howes, Andrew and Whittington, Joyce (1990): A Knowledge Analysis of Interactivity. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 115-120.
“Most existing techniques for predicting users' behaviour do not cope well with highly interactive computer usage, such as is typically found with workstations or personal computers. This paper explores the interactivity inherent in a simple task on an Apple Macintosh computer. An analysis of the knowledge required for performing the task provides the basis for understanding how internal knowledge and information present in the display are combined to guide the behaviour of users spanning the spectrum of expertise from novice to expert.”
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Howes, Andrew and Payne, Stephen J. (1990): Supporting Exploratory Learning. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 881-885.
“This paper introduces the notion of a Learning Support Environment (LSE), which is a collection of tools designed to support exploratory learning of computer applications. An implementation of an LSE for a particular interactive device is motivated in terms of an analysis of the cognitive problems faced by the exploratory learner. The implementation includes four support tools; a Task-action Trace, a Metaphor Micro-world, an Animation Machine and a Buddy Learner.”
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Mar 18th, 2010
Changes to this page (author)
26 Feb 2010: Enabled abstracts to be shown on Andrew Howes's author page.26 Jun 2009: Author was edited 05 Jun 2009: Author was edited 01 Jun 2009: Author was edited 09 May 2009: Author was edited 09 May 2009: Author was edited 24 Sep 2008: Author was added to the bibliography (approved by an editor)22 Aug 2008: Page was edited13 Aug 2008: Page was edited (but waiting for approval by an editor)13 Aug 2008: An editor rejected a request to change information12 May 2008: Author was edited 12 May 2008: Author was edited 07 Apr 2008: Page was edited29 Jun 2007: Author was edited 19 Jun 2007: Author was edited 19 Jun 2007: Author was edited 28 Apr 2003: Added the author to the bibliography
