Alan J. Dix
Has also published under the name of:
"Alan Dix" and "A. J. Dix"
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Publications by Alan J. Dix (bibliography)
» 2009 «
Sas, Corina, Dix, Alan J., Hart, Jennefer and Su, Ronghui (2009): Emotional experience on facebook site. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 4345-4350. Available online
“Although user behavior in the popular Facebook social network site has been intensely investigated since the site came live in 2004, we know little about users' emotions and values weaved in the fabric of their interactions. We report on a diary study for collecting daily accounts of users' most memorable experiences. Outcomes emphasize the distinction between public and private presentation together with user motivation for engaging in each of these roles. Findings also suggest that at their heart, people's most memorable experiences with Facebook are all about positive emotions, in particular those concerned with connectedness and entertainment.”
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Sas, Corina and Dix, Alan J. (2009): Designing for reflection on experience. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2009. pp. 4741-4744. Available online
“This paper outlines the rationale for the workshop and offers an outline of its objectives.”
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» 2008 «
Sas, Corina and Dix, Alan J. (2008): Designing and evaluating mobile phone-based interaction with public displays. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2008 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems April 5-10, 2008. pp. 3941-3944. Available online
Hart, Jennefer, Ridley, Charlene, Taher, Faisal, Sas, Corina and Dix, Alan J. (2008): Exploring the facebook experience: a new approach to usability. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2008. pp. 471-474. Available online
“The focus of this paper is to explore social networking sites such as Facebook in order to understand their recent success and popularity. Recent developments within Web 2.0 have provided users with more freedom to create their own unique user experiences. The conflict between traditional usability methods and user experiences are addressed through carrying out a Heuristic Evaluation to assess how well Facebook complies with usability guidelines and by conducting a user study to unveil unique user experiences. The findings of this study calls for a more holistic method of evaluation that redefines usability to encompass the user experience in line with future technology.”
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Dix, Alan J. (2008): Response to "Sometimes it's hard to be a robot: A call for action on the ethics of abusing artificial agents. In Interacting with Computers, 20 (3) pp. 334-337
Dix, Alan J. and Oram, Damon (2008): Query-through-drilldown: data-oriented extensional queries. In: Levialdi, Stefano (ed.) AVI 2008 - Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces May 28-30, 2008, Napoli, Italy. pp. 251-259. Available online
Lepouras, George, Papatriantafyllou, Aggelos, Katifori, Akrivi and Dix, Alan J. (2008): Time2Hide: spatial searches and clutter alleviation for the desktop. In: Levialdi, Stefano (ed.) AVI 2008 - Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces May 28-30, 2008, Napoli, Italy. pp. 355-358. Available online
» 2007 «
Kano, Akiyo, Read, Janet C., Dix, Alan J. and MacKenzie, I. Scott (2007): ExpECT: An Expanded Error Categorisation Method for Text Input. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 15. Available online
“This paper describes an empirical study on typing errors made by children during a text copy exercise. The literature on text input errors is first examined, focussing on studies of errors that occur during keyboard typing. A study of errors made by children during typing is described and the results from this study are analysed using visual inspection and already published error categorisation methods. These methods are compared with respect to the types and number of errors categorised and uncategorised. We identify and define new kinds of typing errors and use these, together with previously defined error types, to outline an expanded and more detailed method (ExpECT) for the classification of typing errors. ExpECT is compared with the previously examined categorisation methods and is shown to be a more thorough and broader method for the analysis of typing errors.”
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Dix, Alan J. (2007): Designing for Appropriation. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 7. Available online
“Ethnographies often show that users appropriate and adapt technology in ways never envisaged by the designers, or even deliberately subverting the designers' intentions. As design can never be complete, such appropriation is regarded as an important and positive phenomenon. However designing for appropriation is often seen as an oxymoron; it appears impossible to design for the unexpected. In this paper we present some guidelines for appropriation based on our own experience and published literature and demonstrate their use in two case studies. You may not be able to design for the unexpected, but you can design to allow the unexpected.”
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Silva, Paula Alexandra and Dix, Alan J. (2007): Usability -- Not as we know it!. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 26. Available online
“YouTube has been the Internet success story of 2006. However, when subjected to conventional usability evaluation it appears to fail miserably. With this and other social Web services, the purpose of the user is fun, uncertainty, engagement and self-expression. Web2.0 has turned the passive 'user' into an active producer of content and shaper of the ultimate user experience. This more playful, more participative, often joyful use of technology appears to conflict with conventional usability, but we argue that a deeper 'usability' emerges that respects the user's purposes whether acting as homo ludens.”
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Day, Nick, Sas, Corina, Dix, Alan J., Toma, Mokoko, Bevan, Chris and Clare, Dave (2007): Breaking the Campus Bubble: Informed, Engaged, Connected. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 33. Available online
“This paper introduces UniVote, a system supporting mobile phone-based interaction with public displays. The case study carried out at Lancaster University indicates that the campus "bubble" in which students live can lead to feelings of isolation within an insular community cut off from the outside world. UniVote makes use of a voting system to help elicit user involvement, keep users informed of campus- and world-wide events and news and create a sense of community. Findings of this preliminary study suggest that the campus "bubble" can indeed be broken, and the voting component of the system particularly fosters interaction and human connectedness.”
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Khalid, Haliyana and Dix, Alan J. (2007): Designing for Photolurking. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 36. Available online
“This paper describes our early work on design and development to support photolurking. Photolurking is browsing and looking at people's photographs without participating in discussion or addressing the owner of the photographs or photologs, whilst still discussing them in other avenues. We suggest several recommendations, including supporting ad-hoc instantaneous sharing, having remote and live discussion with groups of friends, and fostering collaborative experience. Having said that, the aim of this paper is not to propose an ideal application for supporting photolurking, but rather to provide an instance of how findings and analysis from ethnographic studies can feed into practical design.”
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Dix, Alan J. and Cowen, Laura (2007): HCI 2.0? Usability meets Web 2.0. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 46. Available online
“The web has already dramatically changed society, but the web itself is changing. Web2.0 sites mean that users have become the producers of content and the designers of each others' viewing experience. Technologies such as AJAX combined with public Javascript libraries have allowed applications to be deployed that once would have required extensive programming. Open APIs and mashups make it difficult to tell the difference between a service, and application or a web page. So what are the challenges for HCI when every user is designer, and every menu a different behaviour, when experience outranks efficiency, and connectivity replaces consistency?”
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Ormerod, Tom, Ball, Linden J., Dix, Alan J. and Sas, Corina (2007): HCI and Creative Problem-Solving at Lancaster. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 48. Available online
“The Creative Problem-Solving Research Group (CPSRG) at Lancaster University is a collaboration between psychologists and computer scientists conducting research into creativity, problem-solving and design at the interface between humans and computer systems. Our aim is to develop theoretical understandings and practical interventions that address how creative individuals and groups manage conflicting demands of novelty and divergent thinking versus constraint, domain relevance and minimization of task load. Current projects include creative design in virtual and ubiquitous environments, developing methodologies for inspirational design, and impacts of expert reasoning on creative problem-solving.”
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Ramduny-Ellis, Devina, Dix, Alan J. and Gill, Steve (2007): Second International Workshop on Physicality. In: Proceedings of the HCI07 Conference on People and Computers XXI 2007. p. 61. Available online
“When designing purely physical products we do not necessarily have to understand what it is about their physicality that makes them work -- they simply have it. However, as we design hybrid physical/digital products we now have to understand what we lose or confuse by the added digitality -- and so need to understand physicality more clearly than before. This multi-disciplinary workshop will seek to construct a fundamental understanding of the nature of physicality: how humans experience, manipulate, react and reason about 'real' physical things and how this may inform the design process and the design of future innovative products.”
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Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Daniel, Rouncefield, Mark and Graham, Connor (2007): Exploring Awareness Related Messaging Through Two Situated-Display-Based Systems. In Human Computer Interaction, 22 (1) pp. 173-220
“This article focuses on our exploration of awareness issues through the design and long-term deployment of two systems: the Hermes office door display system (which enabled staff in a university department to post awareness messages to their door displays) and SPAM (a messaging system for supporting coordination between staff at two associated residential community care facilities). In the case of both systems, a significant number of the messages sent could be classified as relating to awareness. Furthermore, with both systems, the situatedness of displays (outside office doors in the case of Hermes and in staff offices in the case of SPAM) had a significant impact on the design and subsequent use of the deployed systems. In particular, the placement of displays provided significant context for awareness messages, including, for example, the identity of the sender of the message and the intended audience of the message. Both systems highlight the need for interaction methods that fit in with both normal working practices (and unplanned events) and that enable the user to manage communication channels. The need for appropriate levels of expressiveness and user control is also apparent: We present numerous examples of users controlling the precision of awareness information and sending awareness messages that have as much to do with playfulness as supporting coordination through activity awareness.”
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Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Daniel, Rouncefield, Mark and Graham, Connor (2007): Exploring Awareness Related Messaging Through Two Situated-Display-Based Systems. In Human-Computer Interaction, 22 (1) pp. 173-220
“This article focuses on our exploration of awareness issues through the design and long-term deployment of two systems: the Hermes office door display system (which enabled staff in a university department to post awareness messages to their door displays) and SPAM (a messaging system for supporting coordination between staff at two associated residential community care facilities). In the case of both systems, a significant number of the messages sent could be classified as relating to awareness. Furthermore, with both systems, the situatedness of displays (outside office doors in the case of Hermes and in staff offices in the case of SPAM) had a significant impact on the design and subsequent use of the deployed systems. In particular, the placement of displays provided significant context for awareness messages, including, for example, the identity of the sender of the message and the intended audience of the message. Both systems highlight the need for interaction methods that fit in with both normal working practices (and unplanned events) and that enable the user to manage communication channels. The need for appropriate levels of expressiveness and user control is also apparent: We present numerous examples of users controlling the precision of awareness information and sending awareness messages that have as much to do with playfulness as supporting coordination through activity awareness.”
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Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Daniel, Rouncefield, Mark and Graham, Connor (2007): Exploring Awareness Related Messaging Through Two Situated-Display-Based Systems. In Human-Computer Interaction, 22 (1) pp. 173-220
“This article focuses on our exploration of awareness issues through the design and long-term deployment of two systems: the Hermes office door display system (which enabled staff in a university department to post awareness messages to their door displays) and SPAM (a messaging system for supporting coordination between staff at two associated residential community care facilities). In the case of both systems, a significant number of the messages sent could be classified as relating to awareness. Furthermore, with both systems, the situatedness of displays (outside office doors in the case of Hermes and in staff offices in the case of SPAM) had a significant impact on the design and subsequent use of the deployed systems. In particular, the placement of displays provided significant context for awareness messages, including, for example, the identity of the sender of the message and the intended audience of the message. Both systems highlight the need for interaction methods that fit in with both normal working practices (and unplanned events) and that enable the user to manage communication channels. The need for appropriate levels of expressiveness and user control is also apparent: We present numerous examples of users controlling the precision of awareness information and sending awareness messages that have as much to do with playfulness as supporting coordination through activity awareness.”
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» 2006 «
Benford, Steve, Crabtree, Andy, Reeves, Stuart, Sheridan, Jennifer, Dix, Alan J., Flintham, Martin and Drozd, Adam (2006): Designing for the opportunities and risks of staging digital experiences in public settings. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2006. pp. 427-436. Available online
“Mobile experiences that take place in public settings such as on city streets create new opportunities for interweaving the fictional world of a performance or game with the everyday physical world. A study of a touring performance reveals how designers generated excitement and dramatic tension by implicating bystanders and encouraging the (apparent) crossing of normal boundaries of behaviour. The study also shows how designers dealt with associated risks through a process of careful orchestration. Consequently, we extend an existing framework for designing spectator interfaces with the concept of performance frames, enabling us to distinguish audience from bystanders. We conclude that using ambiguity to blur the frame can be a powerful design tactic, empowering players to willingly suspend disbelief, so long as a safety-net of orchestration ensures that they do not stray into genuine difficulty.”
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Kano, Akiyo, Read, Janet C. and Dix, Alan J. (2006): Children's phrase set for text input method evaluations. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2006. pp. 449-452. Available online
“This paper investigates the suitability of current phrase sets available in HCI for use with children in text entry experiments. It first examines the use of phrase sets within text input method evaluation, and suggests several reasons why the currently available phrase sets may not be suitable for use with children. A new phrase set, containing 500 phrases which have been taken from children's books, is presented. A study that compared the adult focused phrase set with the new children's phrase set is described. This study concludes that the new phrase set is suitable for use with children and, given that results with the two phrase sets were similar, the study adds validity to the existing adult phrase set.”
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Saslis-Lagoudakis, Georgios, Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Dan and Rouncefield, Mark (2006): Hermes@Home: supporting awareness and intimacy between distant family members. In: Kjeldskov, Jesper and Paay, Jane (eds.) Proceedings of OZCHI06, the CHISIG Annual Conference on Human-Computer Interaction 2006. pp. 23-30. Available online
“This paper presents the Hermes@Home system, which supports awareness (through messaging) between members of a home. Person(s) 'away' from the home can send messages via a web portal to an 'always on' 'information appliance' style display situated in the home, while people at home can scribble messages on the touch sensitive display of this unit for reception by the person(s) away from the home. The system was conceived as a technology probe and serves as a tool in investigating related issues such as awareness and intimacy between home inhabitants. It supplements existing communication methods by providing a highly expressive and always-available messaging method. We present some findings and initial results from a preliminary analysis of messages sent through the system during four deployments, identifying emerging themes in message content. In addition, we also present some of the issues that have surfaced through these deployments in a domestic environment.”
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Ellis, Geoffrey and Dix, Alan J. (2006): The plot, the clutter, the sampling and its lens: occlusion measures for automatic clutter reduction. In: Celentano, Augusto (ed.) AVI 2006 - Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces May 23-26, 2006, Venezia, Italy. pp. 266-269. Available online
Ellis, Geoffrey and Dix, Alan J. (2006): An explorative analysis of user evaluation studies in information visualisation. In: Bertini, Enrico, Plaisant, Catherine and Santucci, Giuseppe (eds.) BELIV 2006 - Proceedings of the 2006 AVI Workshop on BEyond time and errors novel evaluation methods for information visualization May 23, 2006, Venice, Italy. pp. 1-7. Available online
Dix, Alan J., Catarci, Tiziana, Habegger, Benjamin, Ioannidis, Yannis E., Kamaruddin, Azrina, Katifori, Akrivi, Lepouras, Giorgos, Poggi, Antonella and Ramduny-Ellis, Devina (2006): Intelligent context-sensitive interactions on desktop and the web. In: Mihalic, Kristijan (ed.) CAI 2006 - Proceedings of the 2006 AVI Workshop on Context in advanced interfaces May 23, 2006, Venice, Italy. pp. 23-27. Available online
Randell, Cliff, Geelhoed, Erik, Dix, Alan J. and Muller, Henk L. (2006): Exploring the Effects of Target Location Size and Position System Accuracy on Location Based Applications. In: Fishkin, Kenneth P., Schiele, Bernt, Nixon, Paddy and Quigley, Aaron J. (eds.) PERVASIVE 2006 - Pervasive Computing 4th International Conference May 7-10, 2006, Dublin, Ireland. pp. 305-320. Available online
» 2005 «
Ellis, Geoffrey, Bertini, Enrico and Dix, Alan J. (2005): The sampling lens: making sense of saturated visualisations. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 2005. pp. 1351-1354. Available online
“Information visualisation systems frequently have to deal with large amounts of data and this often leads to saturated areas in the display with considerable overplotting. This paper introduces the Sampling Lens, a novel tool that utilises random sampling to reduce the clutter within a moveable region, thus allowing the user to uncover any potentially interesting patterns and trends in the data while still being able to view the sample in context. We demonstrate the versatility of the tool by adding sampling lenses to scatter and parallel co-ordinate visualisations. We also consider some implementation issues and present initial user evaluation results.”
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Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Daniel, Kray, Chris, Rouncefield, Mark, Sas, Corina, Saslis-Lagoudakis, George and Sheridan, Jennifer G. (2005): Exploring bluetooth based mobile phone interaction with the hermes photo display. In: Proceedings of 7th conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services 2005. pp. 47-54. Available online
“One of the most promising possibilities for supporting user interaction with public displays is the use of personal mobile phones. Furthermore, by utilising Bluetooth users should have the capability to interact with displays without incurring personal financial connectivity costs. However, despite the relative maturity of Bluetooth as a standard and its widespread adoption in today's mobile phones, little exploration seems to have taken place in this area -- despite its apparent significant potential. This paper describe the findings of an exploratory study involving our Hermes Photo Display which has been extended to enable users with a suitable phone to both send and receive pictures over Bluetooth. We present both the technical challenges of working with Bluetooth and, through our user study, we present initial insights into general user acceptability issues and the potential for such a display to facilitate notions of community.”
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Davies, Nigel, Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J. and Hesse, Andre (2005): Understanding the role of image recognition in mobile tour guides. In: Proceedings of 7th conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services 2005. pp. 191-198. Available online
“Users of mobile tour guides often express a strong desire for the system to be able to provide information on arbitrary objects they encounter during their visit -- akin to pointing to a building or attraction and saying "what's that?" to a human tour guide. This paper reports on a field study in which we investigated user reaction to the use of digital image capture and recognition to support such functionality. Our results provide an insight into usage patterns and likely user reaction to mobile tour guides that use digital photography for real-time object recognition. These results include the counter-intuitive observation that a significant class of users appear happy to use image recognition even when this is a more complex, lengthy and error-prone process than traditional solutions. Careful analysis of user behavior during the field trails also provides evidence that it may be possible to classify tourists according to the methods by which they prefer to acquire information about tourist attractions in their vicinity. If shown to be generally true these results have important implications for designers of future mobile tour guide systems.”
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Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Daniel, Kray, Christian, Rouncefield, Mark, Sas, Corina, Saslis-Lagoudakis, George and Sheridan, Jennifer G. (2005): Exploring bluetooth based mobile phone interaction with the hermes photo display. In: Tscheligi, Manfred, Bernhaupt, Regina and Mihalic, Kristijan (eds.) Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2005 September 19-22, 2005, Salzburg, Austria. pp. 47-54. Available online
Davies, Nigel, Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J. and Hesse, Andre (2005): Understanding the role of image recognition in mobile tour guides. In: Tscheligi, Manfred, Bernhaupt, Regina and Mihalic, Kristijan (eds.) Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - Mobile HCI 2005 September 19-22, 2005, Salzburg, Austria. pp. 191-198. Available online
Furniss, Dominic, Dix, Alan J., Ponsard, Christophe and Zhang, Guo-Qiang (2005): Outdated Ideas of the Design Process and the Future of Formal Models, Methods and Notations. In: Gilroy, Stephen W. and Harrison, Michael D. (eds.) DSV-IS 2005 - Interactive Systems, Design, Specification, and Verification, 12th International Workshop July 13-15, 2005, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. p. 265. Available online
Dix, Alan J., Sheridan, Jennifer G., Reeves, Stuart, Benford, Steve and O'Malley, Claire (2005): Formalising Performative Interaction. In: Gilroy, Stephen W. and Harrison, Michael D. (eds.) DSV-IS 2005 - Interactive Systems, Design, Specification, and Verification, 12th International Workshop July 13-15, 2005, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. pp. 15-25. Available online
Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Dan, Kray, Christian, Rouncefield, Mark, Saslis-Lagoudakis, George and Sheridan, Jennifer G. (2005): Exploring Mobile Phone Interaction with Situated Displays. In: Rukzio, Enrico, Häkkilä, Jonna, Spasojevic, Mirjana, Mäntyjärvi, Jani and Ravi, Nishkam (eds.) PERMID 2005 - Pervasive Mobile Interaction Devices - Mobile Devices as Pervasive User Interfaces and Interaction Devices - Workshop in conjunction with The 3rd International Conference on Pervasive Computing PERVASIVE 2005 May 11, 2005, Munich, Germany. pp. 43-47. Available online
» 2004 «
Dix, Alan J. (2004): Taking fun seriously. In Interactions, 11 (5) pp. 63-64
Gilleade, Kiel Mark and Dix, Alan J. (2004): Using frustration in the design of adaptive videogames. In: Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology June 3-5, 2004, Singapore. pp. 228-232. Available online
Ellis, Geoffrey and Dix, Alan J. (2004): Visualising Web Visitations: A Probabilistic Approach. In: IV 2004 - 8th International Conference on Information Visualisation 14-16 July, 2004, London, UK. pp. 599-604. Available online
Ellis, Geoffrey and Dix, Alan J. (2004): Quantum web fields and molecular meanderings: visualising web visitations. In: Costabile, Maria Francesca (ed.) AVI 2004 - Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces May 25-28, 2004, Gallipoli, Italy. pp. 197-200. Available online
» 2003 «
Dix, Alan J. (2003): Upside-down A's and Algorithms - Computational Formalisms and Theory. In: Carroll, John M. "HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks". Morgan Kaufman Publishers pp. 381-428
Dix, Alan J., Howes, Andrew and Xiao, Dongbo (2003): Post-web cognition: evolving knowledge strategies for global information environments. In International Journal of Web Engineering Technology, 1 (1) pp. 112-126
Dix, Alan J. (2003): Being playful: learning from children. In: Proceedings of ACM IDC03: Interaction Design and Children 2003. pp. 3-9. Available online
“This paper explores children's understanding as a resource and inspiration for interface design and beyond. From children we can understand innate intelligences and skills, including a sense of number and the nature of play. Play is possibly one of the origins of imagination, which in turn is essential for our own creative thought. Surprisingly few adults engage in creative play, but it is when adult-like rationality and child-like imagination meet that we can best produce effective and innovative solutions. Even writing a paper has aspects of playfulness, such as the puzzle of phrasing an abstract in exactly one hundred words... or so.”
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Dix, Alan J., Finlay, Janet E., Abowd, Gregory D. and Beale, Russell (2003): Human-Computer Interaction (3rd Edition). Prentice Hall
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Bornträger, Christian, Cheverst, Keith, Davies, Nigel, Dix, Alan J., Friday, Adrian and Seitz, Jochen (2003): Experiments with Multi-modal Interfaces in a Context-Aware City Guide. In: Chittaro, Luca (ed.) Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - 5th International Symposium - Mobile HCI 2003 September 8-11, 2003, Udine, Italy. pp. 116-130. Available online
Cheverst, Keith, Dix, Alan J., Fitton, Dan, Friday, Adrian and Rouncefield, Mark (2003): Exploring the Utility of Remote Messaging and Situated Office Door Displays. In: Chittaro, Luca (ed.) Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services - 5th International Symposium - Mobile HCI 2003 September 8-11, 2003, Udine, Italy. pp. 336-341. Available online
Rayson, Paul, Sharp, Bernadette, Alderson, Albert, Cartmell, John, Chibelushi, Caroline, Clarke, Rodney J., Dix, Alan J., Onditi, Victor, Quek, Amanda, Ramduny, Devina, Salter, Andy, Shah, Hanifa, Sommerville, Ian and Windridge, Philip C. (2003): Tracker: A Framework to Support Reducing Rework Through Decision Management. In: ICEIS 2003 2003. pp. 344-351.
» 2002 «
Ellis, Geoffrey and Dix, Alan J. (2002): Density Control Through Random Sampling: an Architectural Perspective. In: IV 2002 2002. pp. 82-. Available online
Dix, Alan J. (2002): Towards a Ubiquitous Semantics of Interaction: Phenomenology, Scenarios, and Traces. In: Forbrig, Peter, Limbourg, Quentin, Urban, Bodo and Vanderdonckt, Jean M. (eds.) DSV-IS 2002 - Interactive Systems. Design, Specification, and Verification, 9th International Workshop June 12-14, 2002, Rostock, Germany. pp. 238-252. Available online
» 2001 «
Clarke, Dave and Dix, Alan J. (2001): Editorial: Interfaces for the Active Web. In Interacting with Computers, 13 (3) pp. 323-324
Clarke, Dave and Dix, Alan J. (2001): Editorial: Interfaces for the Active Web (Part 2). In Interacting with Computers, 13 (6) pp. 627-629
» 2000 «
Dix, Alan J., Rodden, Tom, Davies, Nigel, Trevor, Jonathan, Friday, Adrian and Palfreyman, Kevin (2000): Exploiting Space and Location as a Design Framework for Interactive Mobile Systems. In ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 7 (3) pp. 285-321
“This article considers the importance of context in mobile systems. It considers a range of context-related issues and focus on location as a key issue for mobile systems. A design framework is described consisting of taxonomies of location, mobility, population, and device awareness. The design framework informs the construction of a semantic model of space for mobile systems. The semantic model is reflected in a computational model built on a distributed platform that allows contextual information to be shared across a number of mobile devices. The framework support the design of interactive mobile systems while the platform supports their rapid development.”
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Dix, Alan J., Ramduny, Devina, Rodden, Tom and Davies, Nigel (2000): Places to Stay on the Move: Software Architectures for Mobile User Interfaces. In Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 4 (2)
Dix, Alan J., Beale, Russell and Wood, Andy (2000): Architectures to make Simple Visualisations using Simple Systems. In: Advanced Visual Interfaces 2000 2000. pp. 51-60.
» 1999 «
Dix, Alan J. (1999): HCI Education -- People and Stories, Diversity and Intolerance. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 31 (4) pp. 5-6
Dix, Alan J. and Clarke, David (1999): The Active Web. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 31 (4) pp. 55-60
Fitzpatrick, Ronan and Dix, Alan J. (1999): A Process for Appraising Commercial Usability Evaluation Methods. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jörg (ed.) HCI International 1999 - Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 22-26, 1999, Munich, Germany. pp. 1068-1072.
» 1998 «
Dix, Alan J., Finlay, Janet E., Abowd, Gregory D. and Beale, Russell (1998): Human-Computer Interaction (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall
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Ramduny, Devina, Dix, Alan J. and Rodden, Tom (1998): Exploring the Design Space for Notification Servers. In: Poltrock, Steven and Grudin, Jonathan (eds.) Proceedings of the 1998 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work November 14 - 18, 1998, Seattle, Washington, United States. pp. 227-235. Available online
“Issues of notification and awareness have become increasingly important in CSCW. Notification servers provide a notable mechanism to maintain shared state information of any synchronous or asynchronous groupware system. A taxonomy of the design space for notification servers is presented, based on theoretical results from status-event analysis. This generates a framework and vocabulary to compare and discuss different notification mechanisms to improve design. The paper shows that notification servers are often ideally placed to support impedance matching to give an appropriate pace of feedthrough to the user by allowing them to see changes to shared objects in a timely manner.”
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Dix, Alan J., Fabre, John and Howard, Steve (1998): Introduction to the Special Issue on Temporal Aspects of Usability. In Interacting with Computers, 11 (1) pp. 1-7
Dix, Alan J., Ramduny, Devina and Wilkinson, Julie (1998): Interaction in the Large. In Interacting with Computers, 11 (1) pp. 9-32
“Most work in HCI focuses on interaction in the small: where tasks take a few minutes or hours and individual actions receive feedback within seconds. In contrast, many collaborative activities occur over weeks or months and the turnaround of individual messages may take hours, days or even weeks. This slow pace of interaction brings its own problems, especially when expected responses do not occur. This paper analyses these problems, focusing on the triggers which initiate activities and the way processes recover when triggers are missed or misinterpreted. Furthermore, we are able to consider processes which cross organisational boundaries. We draw on theoretical analysis, an exploratory case study of conference organisation and recent application of the techniques to a student placement office. During the studies, a pattern of recurrent activities was discovered, the 4Rs (request, receipt, response and release), which we believe to be generic to this class of collaborative process.”
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Dix, Alan J. (1998): Time and the Web. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 30 (1) pp. 30-33
Dix, Alan J., Finlay, Janet E., Abowd, Gregory D. and Beale, Russell (1998): Human-Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall
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Dix, Alan J. and Ellis, Geoffrey (1998): Starting simple: adding value to static visualisation through simple interaction. In: Catarci, Tiziana, Costabile, Maria Francesca, Santucci, Giuseppe and Tarantino, Laura (eds.) AVI 1998 - Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces May 24 - 27, 1998, LAquila, Italy. pp. 124-134. Available online
» 1997 «
Dix, Alan J., Mancini, Roberta and Levialdi, Stefano (1997): Communication, Action and History. In: Pemberton, Steven (ed.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 97 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference March 22-27, 1997, Atlanta, Georgia. pp. 542-543. Available online
“At the opening Plenary of CHI 96, Herbert Clark challenged human-computer interface design to emulate some of the graceful repair found in face-to-face conversation. However, the dominant paradigm in recent user-interface design has been one of action, not communication -- direct manipulation, not commands. In day-to-day life we find the transition between the worlds of action and communication problematic, so it is not surprising that we experience similar problems in the computer world. Nowhere is this transition more marked than when using undo -- we are forced to think about what we have just done -- breakdown.”
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Dix, Alan J. (1997): Challenges for Cooperative Work on the Web: An Analytical Approach. In Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 6 (2) pp. 135-156
“This paper investigates some of the issues which will determine the viability of the World Wide Web as an infrastructure for cooperative work. In fact, taking a weak definition of collaboration, the Web is already a very successful collaborative environment. In addition, it is already being used as the basis for experimental and commercial groupware. The paper takes this as a starting point and uses analytic methods developed in the field of Computer Supported Cooperative Work to investigate the reasons for the Web's present success, its strengths and weaknesses as a platform for CSCW, and prospects for future development.”
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Ramduny, Devina and Dix, Alan J. (1997): Why, What, Where, When: Architectures for Cooperative Work on the World Wide Web. In: Thimbleby, Harold, O'Conaill, Brid and Thomas, Peter J. (eds.) Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers XII August, 1997, Bristol, England, UK. pp. 283-301.
“The software architecture of a cooperative user interface determines what component is placed where. This paper examines some reasons determining why a particular placement should be chosen. Temporal interface behaviour is a key issue: when users receive feedback from their own actions and feedthrough about the actions of others. In a distributed system, data and code may be moved to achieve the desired behaviour -- in particular, Java applets can be downloaded to give rapid local semantic feedback. Thus we must choose not only the physical location for each functional component but also when that component should reside in different places.”
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Dix, Alan J. and Modugno, Francesmary (1997): The CHI 96 Basic Research Symposium. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 29 (1) pp. 28-30
» 1996 «
Dix, Alan J. and Abowd, Gregory D. (1996): Delays and Temporal Incoherence Due to Mediated Status-Status Mappings. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 28 (2) pp. 47-49
“The paper describes how the identification of 'status-status mappings' early in the specification and design of an interactive system can highlight potential temporal problems in the interface. These problems arise because without infinitely fast computation and communication, any constraints between status in the interface are bound to be violated some of the time. This violation will at best be a slight lag between the source of a change and its display and at worst may lead to inconsistency between parts of the interface. We identify the ways in which status-status mappings are violated and the way in which they are mediated by events in the implementation of a system. This enables the designer to control the eventual behaviour of the system and avoid the worst pitfalls.”
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Dix, Alan J. (1996): Closing the loop: modelling action, perception and information. In: Catarci, Tiziana, Costabile, Maria Francesca, Levialdi, Stefano and Santucci, Giuseppe (eds.) AVI 1996 - Proceedings of the workshop on Advanced visual interfaces May 27-29, 1996, Gubbio, Italy. pp. 20-28. Available online
» 1995 «
Kirby, M. A. R., Dix, Alan J. and Finlay, Janet E. (eds.) Proceedings of the Tenth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers X August, 1995, Huddersfield, UK.
Dix, Alan J. (1995): Moving between Contexts. In: Palanque, Philippe A. and Bastide, Remi (eds.) DSV-IS 1995 - Design, Specification and Verification of Interactive Systems 95, Proceedings of the Eurographics Workshop June 7-9, 1995, Toulouse, France. pp. 149-173.
» 1994 «
Dix, Alan J. (1994): Que Sera Sera -- The Problem of the Future Perfect in Open and Cooperative Systems. In: Cockton, Gilbert, Draper, Steven and Weir, George R. S. (eds.) Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers IX August 23-26, 1994, Glasgow, Scotland, UK. pp. 397-408.
“When the pace of interaction with a task is too slow, the user's execution/evaluation loop is broken. Feedback normally says what has happened. However, when the task is slow, nothing has happened yet -- the interest shifts to what will have happened. This poses two problems for the user. Firstly, recalling the appropriate context when a response eventually arrives. Secondly, maintaining the expectation that the response will come and when, so that appropriate action can be taken if it fails to materialise. The design question is how to support these activities, of which the latter has received little emphasis to date.”
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Finlay, Janet E. and Dix, Alan J. (1994): Pattern Recognition in HCI: A Viable Approach?. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 26 (4) pp. 23-27
Dix, Alan J. (1994): LADA - a logic for the Analysis of Distributed Actions. In: Paterno, Fabio (ed.) DSV-IS 1994 - Design, Specification and Verification of Interactive Systems94, Proceedings of the First International Eurographics Workshop June 8-10, 1994, Bocca di Magra, Italy. pp. 317-332.
» 1993 «
McCarthy, John C., Miles, Victoria C., Monk, Andrew, Harrison, Michael, Dix, Alan J. and Wright, Peter C. (1993): Text-Based On-Line Conferencing: A Conceptual and Empirical Analysis Using a Minimal Prototype. In Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (2) pp. 147-183
“This article is concerned with an analysis of the requirements for text-based on-line conferencing. From a system perspective, text-based on-line conferencing can be viewed as either message passing or data sharing. These complementary views give rise to different design dimensions. For example, the message-passing view is concerned with granularity, channels, message labels, and so on. The data-sharing view is concerned with the access different individuals have to the text: read only, appending, editing, pointing, and so on. A deliberately sparse prototype was built and placed in this design space. This minimal prototype has limited functionality so that the real problems experienced by users can show through. Relevant literature from disciplines such as social psychology, conversational analysis, and linguistics is briefly reviewed in terms of three generic communication tasks: synchronizing communication, maintaining structural coherence, and maintaining referents. An empirical analysis of subjects' use of the sparse prototype was analyzed to establish the relevance of the generic communication tasks to text-based on-line conferencing. Possible forms that support for these tasks might take are discussed.”
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Dix, Alan J., Finlay, Janet E., Abowd, Gregory D. and Beale, Russell (1993): Human-Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall
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» 1992 «
Dix, Alan J. (1992): Pace and Interaction. In: Monk, Andrew, Diaper, Dan and Harrison, Michael D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers VII August 15-18, 1992, University of York, UK. pp. 193-207.
“Channels of communication are presented as an emergent property of cooperative work. During actual interaction channels of communication are typically used in an intermittent fashion. Thus bandwidth is not an appropriate measure. Instead pace, the measure of the rate at which individual communications occur through a channel, is proposed as a primary property. We can relate this to the pace of interaction between participants, and to the pace of the common task. Any mismatch of pace will result either in the participants being forced to adopt coping strategies or in the worst case a complete breakdown in the cooperative work.”
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Dix, Alan J., Finlay, Janet E. and Beale, Russell (1992): Analysis of User Behaviour as Time Series. In: Monk, Andrew, Diaper, Dan and Harrison, Michael D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers VII August 15-18, 1992, University of York, UK. pp. 429-444.
“The trace of user interactions with a system is the primary source of data for on-line user modelling and for many design and research experiments. This trace should really be analysed as a time series, but standard time series techniques do not deal well with discrete data and fuzzy matching. Techniques from machine learning (neural nets and inductive learning) have been applied to this analysis but these are limited to fixed size patterns and fail to deal properly with the trace as a time series. Many of the notations used to describe the system dialogue (e.g. CSP, production systems) and the user's behaviour (e.g. GOMS, grammars) can be regarded as describing non-deterministic finite state machines. Such a representation forms a key to using machine learning techniques, focussed on the state transitions.”
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Abowd, Gregory D. and Dix, Alan J. (1992): Giving Undo Attention. In Interacting with Computers, 4 (3) pp. 317-342
“The problems associated with the provision of an undo support facility in the context of a synchronous shared or group editor are investigated. Previous work on the development of formal models of 'undo' has been restricted to single user systems and has focused on the functionality of undo, as opposed to discussing the support that users require from any error recovery facility. Motivated by new issues that arise in the context of computer supported co-operative work, the authors aim to integrate formal modelling of undo with an analysis of how users understand undo facilities. Together, these combined perspectives of the system and user lead to concrete design advice for implementing an undo facility. The special issues that arise in the context of shared undo also shed light on the emphasis that should be placed on single user undo. In particular, the authors regard undo not as a system command to be implemented, but as a user intention to be supported by the system.”
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» 1991 «
McCarthy, John C., Miles, Victoria C., Monk, Andrew, Harrison, Michael D., Dix, Alan J. and Wright, Peter C. (1991): Four Generic Communication Tasks which Must be Supported in Electronic Conferencing. In ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 23 (1) pp. 41-43
“In this paper we describe and discuss the design implications of four Generic Communication Tasks which must be supported in electronic conferencing.”
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» 1990 «
Dix, Alan J. (1990): Information Processing, Context and Privacy. In: Diaper, Dan, Gilmore, David J., Cockton, Gilbert and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 90 - 3rd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction August 27-31, 1990, Cambridge, UK. pp. 15-20.
“This paper is about an old concept, data processing, but one that has taken on new meaning with the increasing complexity and interconnection of systems and the burgeoning of expert systems and connectionism. Classical information theory has been found to be inadequate even in the relatively formal context of security, but this inadequacy is intensified when we consider more human issues like privacy. Further, writers like Suchman and Winograd & Flores emphasise context in understanding communication and information. Relating these issues to a simple information life-cycle, this paper questions how we can retain an understanding of human issues when interacting with such complex systems.”
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» 1988 «
Dix, Alan J. (1988): Abstract, Generic Models of Interactive Systems. In: Jones, Dylan M. and Winder, R. (eds.) Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers IV August 5-9, 1988, University of Manchester, UK. pp. 63-77.
“For several years at York, we have been investigating the use of abstract models in the design of interactive systems. I will describe why we originally pursued this line and the benefits that have ensued. I will only briefly describe specific models as examples where appropriate. There is an underlying assumption that formal methods are being used during the software design process, but the analysis proves useful even when this is not the case.”
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Monk, Andrew, Walsh, Paul and Dix, Alan J. (1988): A Comparison of Hypertext, Scrolling and Folding as Mechanisms for Program Browsing. In: Jones, Dylan M. and Winder, R. (eds.) Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers IV August 5-9, 1988, University of Manchester, UK. pp. 421-435.
“Hypertext removes some of the constraints of conventional linear text by providing mechanisms for physically realizing the conceptual links between related sections of material. This research examines the use of a hypertext browser with a literate program. A literate program has a sequential structure, in that it is divided into sections presented in a particular order, and a hierarchical structure, in that some sections 'use' other sections. Two experiments are described which compare the performance of users browsing the same program presented either as a linear or hypertext structure. In Experiment 1 one group used a hypertext browser the other two scrolling and folding browsers. The hypertext browser is shown to be inferior to the scrolling browser under these particular circumstances. In a second experiment two further groups of users were tested, one of which was provided with an overview of the hypertext structure. This manipulation removed the disadvantage demonstrated in Experiment 1. It is concluded that while hypertext presents many new opportunities to the interface designer, it also raises new problems. In particular, the importance of providing an overview or map of the hypertext structure is demonstrated.”
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» 1987 «
Monk, Andrew and Dix, Alan J. (1987): Refining Early Design Decisions with a Black-Box Model. In: Carroll, John M. and Tanner, Peter P. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 87 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Canada. pp. 147-158.
“A procedure is described by which the potential usability of a user interface may be evaluated at the earliest stages of product design. It allows the designer to find points in the interface where the principles of "predictability", "simplicity", "consistency" and "reversibility" are violated. The procedure uses a semi-formal notation based on Dix and Runciman's (1985) PIE model. This is used to generate a black-box model of the device in terms of action-effect rules which could be communicated to a user. The approach is illustrated by applying it to an existing editor where it shows up a variety of potential problems for users and how they might be avoided. The relationship between action-effect rules and task-action rules is also discussed.”
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Dix, Alan J. (1987): The Myth of the Infinitely Fast Machine. In: Carroll, John M. and Tanner, Peter P. (eds.) Proceedings of the ACM CHI 87 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference April 5-9, 1987, Toronto, Canada. pp. 215-228.
“Frequently only steady state functionality is considered when specifying and documenting interactive systems, the lag between user's commands and the system's response is ignored. Various compromises are used when implementing these systems in order to approximate the ideal of an infinitely fast machine in the real situation. Unfortunately, in this process, properties such as "what you see is what you have got" may be lost. Such problems are especially bad when applications are embedded in surrounding systems. This paper addresses these problems with the aid of a simple formal model which clarifies typical system behaviour and describes what information is required by the user. The appearance of such information is discussed, critically analysing existing techniques (e.g. wait cursors) and proposing novel ones (e.g. munchman buffers), and the demands that such techniques put on the surrounding systems are examined.”
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Dix, Alan J. (1987): Giving Control Back to the User. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jorg and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 87 - 2nd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 1-4, 1987, Stuttgart, Germany. pp. 377-382.
“Interactive systems inevitably reflect the structures of the language in which they are written. Imperative programs gave a pre-determined thread of control and the resulting dialogues are often over-determined, in the sense that they do not allow users to structure the dialogue in ways natural to them. Functional languages potentially have a freer choice of control flow. Techniques are proposed whereby these choices are reflected in the resulting dialogues. This will lead to interfaces where the user exercises more control over the dialogue. The aim is to make the user's choices in the dialogue correspond to the choice of evaluation order of the functional program, leading to a structural correspondence between the two. To achieve this various additions and constraints are needed, input-output primitives are treated as non-deterministic functions and the choice of a lazy evaluation strategy means that the only sequencing between these primitives arises from the essential data dependencies. Where additional sequencing is required, it must be added explicitly using special results returned from each primitive called completion events. These are also used to provide real time support for waits, time-outs etc. These techniques are demonstrated using various examples from information systems. By making designers explicitly introduce any non-essential sequencing, they are encouraged to produce systems that more faithfully reflect the freedom of sequence offered by such techniques as forms-oriented input-output and multi-windowing, thus giving control back to the user.”
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Dix, Alan J. and Harrison, Michael D. (1987): Formalising Models of Interaction in the Design of a Display Editor. In: Bullinger, Hans-Jorg and Shackel, Brian (eds.) INTERACT 87 - 2nd IFIP International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction September 1-4, 1987, Stuttgart, Germany. pp. 409-414.
“Many of the conceptual properties often suggested to be valuable of text editors are either device specific or vague and ill-defined. This paper describes how formal interaction models may be used to increase the precision of these concepts with less dependence on implementation. An interaction model simply distinguishing display and state is introduced as a basis for the description of display editors. This model is then refined, first to incorporate notions of direct manipulation and then to model properties of pointers and boundaries (for use in cut and paste for example). In each case principles are formulated and related to previous work in the area.”
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Monk, Andrew and Dix, Alan J. (1987): Refining Early Design Decisions with a Black-Box Model.. In: Diaper, Dan and Winder, Russel (eds.) Proceedings of the Third Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers III August 7-11, 1987, University of Exeter, UK. pp. 147-158.
“A procedure is described by which the potential usability of a user interface may be evaluated at the earliest stages of product design. It allows the designer to find points in the interface where the principles of "predictability", "simplicity", "consistency" and "reversibility" are violated. The procedure uses a semi-formal notation based on Dix and Runciman's (1985) PIE model. This is used to generate a black-box model of the device in terms of action-effect rules which could be communicated to a user. The approach is illustrated by applying it to an existing editor where it shows up a variety of potential problems for users and how they might be avoided. The relationship between action-effect rules and task-action rules is also discussed.”
Copyrights may apply
Dix, Alan J. (1987): The Myth of the Infinitely Fast Machine.. In: Diaper, Dan and Winder, Russel (eds.) Proceedings of the Third Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers III August 7-11, 1987, University of Exeter, UK. pp. 215-228.
“Frequently only steady state functionality is considered when specifying and documenting interactive systems, the lag between user's commands and the system's response is ignored. Various compromises are used when implementing these systems in order to approximate the ideal of an infinitely fast machine in the real situation. Unfortunately, in this process, properties such as "what you see is what you have got" may be lost. Such problems are especially bad when applications are embedded in surrounding systems. This paper addresses these problems with the aid of a simple formal model which clarifies typical system behaviour and describes what information is required by the user. The appearance of such information is discussed, critically analysing existing techniques (e.g. wait cursors) and proposing novel ones (e.g. munchman buffers), and the demands that such techniques put on the surrounding systems are examined.”
Copyrights may apply
» 1986 «
Dix, Alan J. and Harrison, Michael D. (1986): Principles and Interaction Models for Window Managers. In: Harrison, Michael D. and Monk, Andrew (eds.) Proceedings of the Second Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers II August 23-26, 1986, University of York, UK. pp. 352-366.
“Formal methods have been used to develop a prototype interactive editing system, in which different edits are viewed through separate windows. Designing the prototype has involved the development of a simple window management system. The design of the window manager was achieved with the assistance of an initial description using an abstract model of interaction. We argue that abstract interaction models clarify certain design issues. We discuss more complex properties of windowing systems including separability, sharing and interference. We formulate some simple generative user-engineering principles to support these properties.”
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» 1985 «
Dix, Alan J. and Runciman, Colin (1985): Abstract Models of Interactive Systems. In: Johnson, Peter and Cook, Stephen (eds.) Proceedings of the Conference of the British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Specialist Group - People and Computers I August 17-20, 1985, University of East Anglia. pp. 13-22.
“We propose an abstract model for a large class of interactive systems. In these systems the user provides a sequence of commands that determines both a corresponding sequence of displays and a net effect or result. Editors, for example, usually fit this model. We show how our model can be used to address issues such as display laws, error correction, exception handling and command types. We give some formal statements of design principles, and also discover ways in which these interact or even conflict. Such results are of value whether or not a formal development method is used.”
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